III. CRITICAL AREAS OF CONCERN
[followed]
B. Insufficient access of women to education, training, science
and technology
30. The right to education is a human
right having major implications both for the individual as well
as for social and economic development. Given the inverse relationship
between female education especially at the first and second
levels and varying indicators of fertility and mortality, the
positive impact on health well-being and the process involved
in transforming societies makes education of the populace an
imperative.
31. All available indicators point to
severe and persistent crisis in the education sector of most
of the African countries with gross enrolment ratios being consistently
on the decline while attrition rates, particularly that of girls
have been on the increase and the quality of education sliding.
Between 1988 and 1990, out of the total female population, the
gross enrolment ratios annually were 85, 64 and 32 per cent
for primary, secondary and tertiary respectively. Girls are
disadvantaged in terms of the quality, relevance and appropriateness
of education and training they receive. There is also a pronounced
discrepancy in educational attainment between rural and urban
communities and between males and females, a factor which has
adverse implications for Africa's recovery and long-term development.
Africa's education system is pyramidal, with a broad base at
the primary level moving precipitously through the secondary
level to a narrow apex at the tertiary level. In this scenario,
women's access to education is concentrated at the lowest level.
Approximately 23 per cent of primary school graduates enters
secondary institutions while less than 3 per cent of those who
leave secondary school enter tertiary levels of education, gender
discrepancies increased from the lower to the upper levels.
The implementation of the education policy implicit in Structural
Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) and which advocates focusing on
the promotion of universal primary education, would tend to
saturate the economy with primary school graduates while only
a handful of university and technical level graduates would
be available with few skills to confront the integrated and
technology-driven global economy.
32. The adult female literacy rate of
less than 50 per cent in Africa is the lowest in the world.
In 1990, the adult literacy rate of males was 61 per cent while
that of females was 39 per cent in sub-Saharan Africa. There
is a high level of illiteracy among women, a serious impediment
to development in the region. In most countries, the formal
education system is still too small - or too few pupils emerge
from it successfully - to reduce the absolute number of illiterates,
while non-formal education programmes are not sufficiently widespread
to compensate. The continued crisis in the education sector
can be explained, to a large extent, by the sharp decline in
expenditure on education and the rapid population growth compounded
by inappropriate investment in human resources and misallocation
and mismanagement of resources, as well as negative aspects
of SAPs. Levels of illiteracy in the region have steadily been
on the increase since the beginning of the last decade and are
projected to reach 146.8 million by the year 2000, compared
to 132.3 million in 1980.
33. The educational process reinforces
existing gender inequalities which in turn shapes the perceptions
that influence curriculum designers, textbook writers, audio-visual
aids designers as well as teachers and pupils. However, the
impact of appropriate policies and programmes to address the
gender disparities in education is yet to be assessed. Decisions
on what is to be learnt at what level and by whom and delivered
by whom are male-dominated thus perpetuating gender-based stereotypes.
This renders the curriculum inappropriate.
34. Certain socio-cultural constraints
impede women's access to vocational and technical education
and training thus making it difficult for them to acquire higher
and relevant technical skills. Through training, member States
have taken some initiative to strengthen the capacities of African
women. Some of these initiatives include training in gender
analysis and planning, entrepreneurial skills and management,
and extension services, access to credit and new technologies,
and research and policy support. Some bilateral agencies and
United Nations specialized agencies, subregional and regional
organizations, including the UNECA African Centre for Women,
have made further efforts to strengthen the capacities of women
farmers and entrepreneurs through staff training; training of
extension workers; training women in technical and income-generating
skills and food processing; training of women's groups and training
of non-literate women through the use of audio-visual materials.
Despite these efforts, critical gaps still remain, especially
in relation to insufficient training in gender analysis and
planning at all levels to enhance the advancement of women.
In addition, initial, refresher and advanced training has been
lacking and where it exists, it has been at the low level and
not relevant to employment requirements. Vocational and technical
education must be integrated into the curriculum as part of
mainstream education. It is essential that in the future such
programmes be oriented towards the special needs of the youth.
35. Paragraph 191 of the Nairobi Forward-looking
Strategies states that women should be viewed as users and agents
of change in science and technology. Their technological, scientific
knowledge and managerial skills should be improved in order
to enhance their participation in industrial production, innovation,
productive design, product adaptation and production techniques.
In a number of African countries, measures have been introduced
to increase women's participation through revision of the school
curricula and the promotion of equal opportunities in vocational
training and the introduction of appropriate technology. In
spite of these efforts, the involvement of women in science
and technology and their contribution to the process of industrialization
is still minimal. Women's participation in science and technology
subjects at higher levels as well as their participation in
scientific research and the formulation of science and technology
policies should therefore be promoted. African females will
benefit from UNESCO's Project 2000+ which aims at promoting
scientific and technological literacy for all.
36. While the low level of development
in science and technology including industrial, information
and communication technologies in the region affect the socio-economic
well-being of the populations, the lives of women who are overburdened
with the responsibilities of sustaining the livelihoods of their
families are even more burdensome. The application of science
and technology should benefit women in both the formal and informal
sectors. In both rural and urban areas, women shoulder heavy
and laborious tasks of agricultural activities, which could
be greatly eased by the adoption of simple and appropriate environmentally
sound technologies. The direct linkage between access to and
application of science and technology and the lives of women
cannot be overemphasized. There is no doubt that science and
technology are the driving forces of economic and social development,
and hence the need to include the direct involvement of women.
Technology is gradually changing African societies and it is
essential that women benefit from it and participate in the
process from the design level to the application stage. This
implies their involvement in the transformation, conservation
and increased commercialization of the locally available materials.
This will only be achieved if girls and young women are encouraged
to study and apply science and technology.
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C. Women's vital role in culture,
the family and socialization
37. African societies are products of
a common historical evolution, enriched by diverse cultures,
languages and composed of different ethnic or religious communities.
Individuals within those societies have their collective identities
as members of families, communities, ethnic or religions groups,
nations and increasingly, a global society. The delicate balance
between the rights of the individual and the society, and the
groups within a society should be respected. In particular,
there should be active encouragement for the social integration
of the disadvantaged, particularly women, the vulnerable and
the marginalized in society, in order to reconnect and integrate
them into the community, through the enhancement of their potential
and by making all institutions of societies more accessible
to them. It is of great importance that such a process begins
with the youth. It should be done within the framework of shared
values in order to protect social and cultural diversity, including
stability and welfare, and to advance towards an equitable society
that ensures respect for all including minority rights.
38. In Africa, heavy responsibilities
fall squarely on those who have had to assume increasingly new
roles in addition to their traditional ones. The role of the
women in holding the family fabric and functions together is
therefore a critical one. On the other hand, men have been losing
some of their traditional roles without taking on new ones.
This has resulted in inordinate family dynamics such that the
working hours of the woman have increased while the hours spent
by men working for the well-being of the family have greatly
decreased. It is thus necessary for men to share family responsibilities
to redress this imbalance for the well-being of the family.
At the same time, some cultures often perpetuate traditional
practices that are harmful to the health of women. In this connection,
some countries have adopted legal and constitutional measures
aimed at eliminating these practices. A strategy for information,
education and communication (IEC) aiming at improving the image
and role of African women through the media and school manuals
should be developed. Such a strategy should also be targeted
at the youth.
39. The family is the basic unit of the
society which establishes ethics, cultural values, behavioural
attitudes and patterns, that influence the conduct of individuals
in society. However, in Africa, the fabric of the family has
become greatly challenged by prevailing problems associated
with economic deterioration which continue to impoverish many
households. Unemployment, internal and external displacement,
terrorism and migration to urban centres have disrupted family
relations and family social systems. As a consequence, young
family members have lost the social, economic and emotional
support of the family often falling victim to delinquent behaviour
and drug abuse.
40. In addition, recurrent natural disasters,
civil strife and ethnic conflicts have created serious hardship
for families. The displacement of families during these crises
deprives them of the support of the extended family system and
this has serious social and cultural implications. The family
is the primary source of economic and social protection for
those who cannot support themselves due to disability, illness,
age, unemployment, displacement and other causes. In this context,
the burden falls disproportionately on women who have had to
assume greater responsibilities and other roles in addition
to their traditional ones. Governments must provide assistance
through social welfare and social protection schemes and programmes,
especially targeted at women. Single-parent, particularly women
heads of households make up a large proportion of the poor in
many African societies in recent times. Governments and community
organizations should make particular effort to ensure that single-parent
families receive the social support they need in the form of
economic support for the family and child-care support for single
working parents.
41. Socialization is the process by which
a child is taught the roles he or she is to play in society.
This process determines how adult men and women behave as chief
agents of socialization in families, schools and communities.
In Africa, roles assigned to men and women are pre-determined
and different. The family as an agent of socialization assigns
different status, values and roles to girls and boys. In some
countries, discrimination against women and girls starts before
birth with parental and societal attitudes that promote a preference
for sons over daughters. Young women and girls should be accorded
equal opportunities to grow and to develop their full potential
in their productive and reproductive roles. There must be concerted
effort to promote a cultural environment where girls and boys
grow and work together as equal partners for sustainable development
and peace. In many African countries, women's culturally disadvantaged
position, low self-esteem, lack of confidence coupled with lack
of time and low motivation limit their capacity to take advantage
of opportunities available to them in order to eradicate poverty.
Social and cultural traditions and practices should be reformed
towards a common civil code that upholds the dignity of women
as equal partners with men in the family including removal of
gender bias in matters of marriage, divorce, custody and property
rights.
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D. Improvement of women's health,
reproductive health including family planning and integrated
population programmes
42. The 1992 Dakar/Ngor Declaration on
Population, Family and Sustainable Development stated, inter
alia, that population policies and programmes should be part
of sustainable development strategies. The programme of action
of ICPD (1994) further recognized that human beings are at the
centre of sustainable development. However, the inability to
integrate population factors in African development plans effectively,
in a bid to harmonize population and economic growth rates,
still persists. Africa had an estimated population of 644 million
in 1992 which is expected to grow at an annual rate of 2.9 per
cent to the year 2000. The region has the world's highest fertility
rate, the lowest life expectancy (49 years for males and 52
for females), the highest infant mortality rate (114 deaths
per 1,000 live births), one of the highest maternal mortality
rates and one of the highest dependency ratios (47 per cent
under 15 years and 3 per cent over 65). These figures underscore
the urgency to address the needs of the youth, which constitutes
the most vital resource for the future. Other reproductive health
needs are indicated by an unacceptably high rate of unsafe abortions,
which account for up to 30 per cent of maternal mortality in
some African countries, and the growing concern of teenage pregnancy.
In some African countries, nearly two thirds of the cases of
septic abortions come from the 15-19 age group. With respect
to such cases, it is necessary to provide the requisite information
to the youth so that they can make informed decisions and choices
about their own sexuality and fertility, but also parents who
transmit the social values and define gender roles should be
reached, as well as policy makers so that they create the necessary
policy environment. In addition, in the 1980s, population growth
rates exceeded economic growth rates in 32 African countries.
The gap between fertility and mortality is widening - i.e. more
children are being born while less people are dying. It doubled
between 1972 to 1994 and is expected to double again by 2017.
The demographic trends have had many negative consequences on
the health and quality of women's lives. The unavailability
of adequate health services and inaccessibility to information,
coupled with the presence of chronic diseases such as malaria
and malnutrition, leave many women unable to cope with the physical
demands of pregnancy. Consequently, maternal morbidity is widespread
and the lifetime risk of maternal death for African women is
1 in 20 compared to 1 in 10,000 in developed countries. The
effects of STDs and the emergence of HIV/AIDs pandemic on women
has added to the already existing vulnerable status of women's
health. The rising rates of unwanted and unplanned pregnancies
among women under 20 years of age not only compromise their
reproductive health but deny a majority of them opportunities
to complete their education and acquire decision-making skills
which will enable them to make informed choices about their
fertility.
43. Population and development related
policies and programmes in Africa must strive to improve the
status of women while at the same time seeking to reduce the
rates of population growth, infant and child mortality and maternal
mortality. Therefore, the full participation and partnership
of both men and women is required in both their productive and
reproductive lives, including shared responsibilities in the
care and nurturance of children as well as in the experience
of reproductive health and rights. In this context, the provision
of quality family planning services is essential. Such services
must ensure that both men and women have the right to be informed
and have access to safe, effective and affordable methods of
family planning of their choice. The practice of reproductive
health and family planning is not only for the spacing of pregnancy
but includes the protection against STDs at each stage of the
reproductive life cycle. It is essential that these services
be sensitive to the needs of the youth who constitute a high
risk category. Thus, the complete integration of the full range
of reproductive health services in the primary health care systems
as well as their decentralized delivery and management will
contribute significantly to the promotion of women's health,
reproductive health, safe motherhood and the achievement of
responsible parenthood.
44. While it is acknowledged that African economies can no longer
provide free health services to all, it is imperative likewise
to acknowledge that a very large proportion of women constitute
the poorest of the poor. It is therefore necessary to alleviate
their plight and to target subsidized health services to such
women who also carry the burden of providing health care to
their families, in order to improve their situation. To reach
these objectives, IEC strategies and efficient services in the
field of family health should be adopted to promote family planning
and improve maternal and child health, particularly in the rural
areas.
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E. Women's relationship and linkages
to environment and natural resource management
45. Poverty is a major cause and consequence
of environmental degradation and is compounded by scarcity,
depletion and mismanagement of resources for the initiation,
stimulation and promotion of sustainable development for a growing
population. Environmental degradation has had and continues
to have an adverse impact on the population as a whole. Women
specifically experience this impact in terms of their changing
role and the traditional division of labour. This has meant
an increase in their workload of domestic chores. Often women
have no choice but to exploit natural resources in order to
survive, even though they may possess knowledge to protect the
environment and its sustainability. Thus, in the absence of
alternative means of livelihood, poverty is strongly linked
to the mismanagement of natural resources and the consequent
environmental pressure which results in environmental degradation.
In the urban areas, the major environmental problems are linked
to poor sanitation and increasing poverty. Additionally, unsustainable
patterns of production and consumption in developed countries
do not reflect concern for environmental conservation and rehabilitation.
Natural resources are central to the livelihood of poor rural
households and it is women who are responsible for processing
and, to a lesser but increasing extent, growing and processing
agricultural products. Women are key environmental managers,
with profound knowledge of plants, animals and ecological processes
with which they are intimately involved. Such knowledge should
not be lost to the future generations of women. Housing being
a basic human right needs to be adequately addressed and reinforced.
Residential struggles are more and more prevalent and women
are at the forefront.
Land and property rights
46. Despite African women's active role
in the management and creation of the urban and rural environment,
they are discriminated against with respect to their access
to and control over land and property. In some countries, legislation,
traditions and harmful practices relating to religion prevent
women from inheriting and having control over land and property.
1/ Their poverty cannot change unless they gain something out
of the work they do. Women need land to be used as collateral
when they need to borrow money from financial institutions.
47. The United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED) held in 1992 culminated
in the recognition of the crucial role of women in sustaining
the physical, natural and socio-economic environment. UNCED
adopted the "Global Action for Women Towards Sustainable
Development" as elaborated in chapter 24 of Agenda 21.
Experiences in many parts of Africa have shown that women play
a critical role in environmental management, conservation and
protection. They are also the first to suffer as environmental
changes affect their ability to obtain firewood, energy, water,
food and other resources for household and economic activities.
Ongoing rapid environmental and economic degradation as well
as natural and man-made disasters in Africa drastically affect
the lives of women and children in rural and urban areas. Special
attention in rehabilitation and reconstruction programmes should
be given to women's pressing needs for vital natural resources
through the design of environmental and sustainable strategies
addressing these needs.
48. Regrettably, women have been largely
absent in decision-making and in the implementation of environmental
projects and programmes. Furthermore, their commitment, experiences
and knowledge in natural resources management and environmental
protection has not been recognized. A crucial constraint for
women's involvement in both agriculture and environmental activities
is their lack of natural resource tenure rights, information,
extension services and training, involvement in decision-making.
In addition, traditional and religious practices, more than
laws, prevent women from inheriting and controlling land and
other resources, on an equal basis with the men. Lack of appropriate
technology, recognition and legitimization of indigenous science
and technology, particularly women's knowledge, has also contributed
to environmental degradation, food insecurity and increased
women's work.
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F. The political empowerment of women
49. Democracy is instrumentally linked
to human rights and as defined in the African Charter on Human
and People's Rights and the 1993 Vienna Programme of Action,
is based on the freely expressed will of people (men, women
and youth) to determine their own political, economic, social
and cultural systems. In Africa, the process of democratization
has been put in motion with varying success. Given the long-standing
discrimination against women in Africa, specific and critical
measures should be taken to enable women's full participation
in decision-making formulation as well as access to all organizations
of society. The concept of civil and political rights as well
as economic, social and cultural rights has provided individuals
and groups subjected to discrimination with the means for correcting
injustice and enhancing social integration. African Governments
can promote this process by creating a climate of tolerance
for the rights of all persons, particularly women, by clearly
stating the rights which all can expect to enjoy and by ensuring
that their legal systems are open to all and effective as remedy
for limitations on those rights.
50. Women constitute half of humankind
and throughout the world they enter all areas of activity, thereby
modifying humankind's vision of the world. Women therefore are
half of its resource of talent, ability and potential, and their
participation in decision-making is logical because they are
the major contributors to national economies through their paid
and unpaid labour; politically, half of those served and represented
by Governments are women. Women's participation in the decision-making
process world wide has been one of those areas where there has
been little notable progress. In 1993, only six countries had
women heads of government while the average proportion of women
in parliaments worldwide had dropped to 10 from 12 per cent
in 1989.
51. In Africa, the low representation
of women in the political decision- making process can be attributed,
inter alia, to several factors: socio-cultural perceptions and
inhibitions; lack of finances; lack of political commitment,
consciousness and goodwill, and general lack of rural infrastructure.
Under the circumstances, the majority of women are denied the
opportunity to play their economic and intellectual roles to
the fullest extent, besides that of wife and mother. Although
most of the women participate in the electoral process as voters,
very few offer themselves as candidates. Another impediment
to women's participation in the political decision-making process
is the high illiteracy rate among women in the region. This
has repercussions on women's awareness, as well as on their
level of participation in political life. The limited participation
by women in political life is closely associated with the less
visible factors such as uneven distribution of roles and responsibilities
between men and women, persistent differentiations in the field
of training and occupation and the economic dependency of women.
52. Similarly, both at the regional and
international levels, the representation of women is still low
especially at the higher levels of professional categories.
This situation persists despite the fact that the majority of
African countries have ratified various United Nations conventions
supporting the empowerment of women. Thus whereas globally there
are a few women heading international organizations such as
UNHCR and UNFPA, no African regional organization has appointed
women to the top echelon of their hierarchy. Notwithstanding
the fact that the entry of women in their employment ranks has
been facilitated by the establishment of women's units, organizations
such as OAU, ECA, SADC, PTA, ECOWAS and ADB need to tap the
immense potential and alternative world-view and perspectives
of health management, economic development and conflict resolution,
among others, that women have and which should be used in solving
the multiplicity of the region's problems.
53. Policies to promote social and political
integration must guarantee opportunities for women's full participation
in decisions that affect their interests. A guiding objective
in this very critical area of concern is the need to engender
and strengthen factors that promote the full participation of
women in power structures and decision-making at all levels.
This should encompass the participation of women in a wide range
of organizations and institutions in the public and private
sectors. This is one of the most critical areas of this Platform
in terms of its potential for strengthening democracy, for ensuring
equality in the long term and for enriching the development
process with diversity and innovation. Several initiatives have
been taken within the region towards enhancing popular participation,
for instance, the Khartoum Declaration of 1988 which was the
outcome of the International Conference on the Human Dimension
of Africa's Economic Recovery and Development, attended by African
policy and decision makers. Similarly, the Abuja Declaration
on Participatory Development: The Role of Women in Africa in
the 1990s was very specific on the measures that have to be
undertaken in this field. Another milestone was the Arusha Declaration
of 1990 (African Charter for Popular Participation in Development
and Transformation) which serves as a guideline for Governments,
NGOs, grass-roots organizations, youth and women's groups, etc.,
for the implementation of the principles of the Charter, namely
human rights, democracy, development of a civil society, good
governance and accountability.
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G. Women's legal and human rights
54. The concept of human rights is fundamental
to all aspects of human development. It is a fundamental principle
of the United Nations, its Charter and the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights. Human rights are inalienable birthrights for
every human being regardless of race, religion, creed, nationality
or sex and they are not dependent on the State. Since 1949,
numerous human rights instruments and resolutions have been
proclaimed. The numerous resolutions in favour of equal rights
of women and girls, the Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Discrimination against Women, the African Charter on
Human and Peoples Rights, the Convention on the Rights of the
Child (1989), the African Heads of State and Governments Declaration
on the Rights and Welfare of the Child and the African Charter
on the Rights and Welfare of the Child are all guidelines for
improving the legal and human rights status for women. The United
Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
against Women, now signed by over 34 countries in the African
region, explicitly acknowledges that extensive discrimination
against women, which continues to exist, violates the principle
of equality of rights and respect for human dignity.
55. Most African countries have set in
motion measures to provide in their constitutions for fundamental
rights and freedoms to both men and women and have mandated
the equality de jure for all their citizens in line with provisions
of the Convention and the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies.
A recent comparative study on national laws on the rights and
status of women in the region shows that in some cases some
progressive changes are taking place in specific areas affecting
women but that the changes have been made in a piecemeal and
uncoordinated manner; thus, situations exist where the potential
advancement in a certain area is negated by the lack of change
in another intricately related area. African countries also
have the problem of constitutional rights being abrogated by
negative customary and/or religious laws and practices. For
example, there are countries where, regardless of age, employment
or civil status, women remain as minors under the guardianship
of husbands, fathers, brothers or even sons. In some countries,
and despite the provisions of the right to work stipulated in
labour laws, married women may not work if their husbands refuse
on the basis that they are the heads of the households. In others,
there are provisions in the laws that a woman who marries a
man from another nationality loses her citizenship and this
will further complicate the situation with regard to children.
While there are countries in which a woman, irrespective of
her marital status, can own and manage property in her own right,
sue and be sued in her own name, there are countries where a
woman cannot appear in court without the permission or the assistance
of her husband or male relative.
56. National laws and policies in Africa
should be evaluated and reformed against the background of the
1993 Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action of the World
Conference on Human Rights. The Conference took historic new
steps in declaring that violation of women's rights is violation
of human rights, supported the creation of new mechanism of
complaint through the existence of an optional protocol to the
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
against Women and the appointment of a Special Rapporteur on
Violence against Women. Paragraph 18 of the Vienna Declaration
stated explicitly that the human rights of women and of the
girl-child are an inalienable, integral and indivisible part
of universal human rights. It called for the full and equal
participation of women in political, civil, economic, social
and cultural life, at the national, regional and international
levels, and the eradication of all forms of discrimination on
grounds of sex. It further stated that gender-based violence
and all forms of sexual harassment and exploitation, including
those resulting from cultural prejudice and international trafficking
are incompatible with the dignity and worth of the human person
and must be eliminated. In paragraph 36, the Vienna Declaration
underlines the importance of the integration and full participation
of women as both agents and beneficiaries in the development
process, and reiterates the objectives established on global
action for women towards sustainable development in the Rio
Declaration on Environment and Development and also in chapter
24 of Agenda 21. The African Platform for Action fully endorses
these objectives and obligations for the legal and human rights
of women. Government should ratify and implement all those international
treaties and standards which promote and protect the rights
of women and youth.
57. Despite the increasing pressure for
greater participation, large numbers of women continue to be
excluded from the benefits of development. Women with disabilities
are the poorest of the poor. They are affected by food insecurity
both as women and as disabled persons. There is thus a need
to target them directly in all appropriate activities of economic
development.
58. Paragraph 277 of the Nairobi Forward-looking
Strategies observed that there is an increasing number of categories
of women who, because of their special characteristics, experience
not only the common problems experienced by all, but also specific
difficulties due to either their socio-economic and health conditions,
disability, minority status or a combination of these factors.
59. In paragraph 280, the Nairobi Strategies
recommended that additional efforts should be directed towards
ensuring the gainful and productive inclusion of these categories
of women in mainstream development and in political activities,
with priority emphasis being placed on income-generating opportunities.
Further, there should be independent and sustained improvement
of their condition through the full integration and active participation
of women as agents and beneficiaries of development at the same
time.
60. During the last decade, the conditions
of such special groups of women in Africa have become even worse
due to the interplay of a number of external and internal factors,
as discussed elsewhere in this Platform for Action.
61. Article 11 (e) of the 1979 Women's
Rights Convention is explicit on the rights of women with special
needs and states that all States Parties should take appropriate
measures to eliminate discrimination against women in the field
of employment, in order to ensure, on the basis of equality
of men and women, the same rights in particular "The right
of social security, particularly in cases of retirement, unemployment,
sickness, invalidity and old age and other incapacity to work,
as well as the right to paid leave".
62. Aged and disabled women, widows,
internally displaced persons, women in conflict situations,
refugees and female-headed households are normally excluded
from participating as full members of the community. Policies
and programmes developed for such needy women therefore must
be geared towards the social integration of these marginalized
and disadvantaged women and to guarantee better opportunities
for them.
63. The 1975 Declaration on the Rights
of Disabled Persons and the 1982 World Programme of Action in
respect of Disabled Persons provide overall frameworks for action,
but also point out that problems specific to women have not
yet been fully appreciated by society because they are not fully
realized and understood.
64. Article 18.4 of the 1981 African
Charter on Human and People's Rights states that "The aged
and the disabled shall also have the right to special measures
of protection in keeping with their physical and moral needs".
65. Policies and programmes concerning
the aged and disabled women must focus on the equalization of
opportunities and the contributions they can make to society,
as well as on their dignity and rights as citizens rather than
as objects of charity or welfare.
66. Women are subjected to violence and
to the threat of violence in their daily relationships. Violence
deprives women of their ability to achieve full equality. It
threatens their safety, their freedom and their autonomy. Violence
against women is a fundamental violation of human rights which
include the right to life, liberty and personal, mental and
physical integrity, the right not to be subject to torture or
to cruel, inhuman or degrading punishment, the right to equal
protection before the law, and equality within the family. Many
cases of violence against women go unreported particularly when
violence occurs in the home. The majority of women do not speak
out or report to the court on violence but keep silent as victims
because of fear, shame or a misplaced feeling that they are
somehow responsible. The psychological, emotional and economic
conditions of women subjected to physical and emotional abuse
may in fact alter their perception of reality in such a way
that they perceive themselves as completely helpless and unable
to make choices or escape.
67. Although it is noted that in some
African countries, violence against women is a criminal offence,
many Governments do not address the issue. Certain traditional
practices, rape, female genital mutilation, wife battering,
incest, sexual harassment are rampant and are harmful to the
health of women and the girl-child. Often these practices affect
the perceptions of the girl-child to the extent that she does
not see herself as a victim. Although many Governments are now
concerned with the issue, few have taken legal or constitutional
steps to stop the practice. A recent important development is
the recognition of women's rights to attain the highest standard
of sexual and reproductive health, free from discrimination,
coercion and violence as expressed in various international
human rights instruments.
68. This Platform emphasizes the need
to analyse the roots of violence against women and girls, by
their historical, social, cultural or religious origin. A gender
analysis of violence against women could lead to solutions that
are integrated to include both women and men. Stateless women,
refugees and displaced women who no longer have their Governments'
legal protection should be highlighted because they are particularly
vulnerable. Taking into consideration the inadequacies of the
support structures for women victims of violence, this Platform
recommends that Governments, non-governmental organizations
and United Nations agencies establish information and other
support services.
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H. Involvement of women in the peace process
69. At present, several African countries
are embroiled in war, civil strife and conflict caused by a
combination of factors including massive violations of human
rights and ethnic violence. These situations often impact disproportionately
on women resulting in violence, involuntary displacement and
flight from the country of origin. Out of an estimated global
refugee population of some 20 million, nearly 35 per cent is
in Africa. Women and children constitute roughly 80 per cent
of this population. The vast majority are destitute refugees,
mainly of rural background. They are located in countries facing
major economic problems and often in the most remote, poorest
and least developed areas. These countries are often unable
to absorb the extra burden of refugees and may not be able to
provide essential services to their own citizens who are already
experiencing unprecedented levels of hardship. In Africa the
population of internally displaced persons is estimated to be
16 million persons, more than 1 million in Ethiopia, 3.5 million
in Angola, 2 million in Mozambique, 2 million in Somalia, 500,000
in Uganda, 4.2 million in South Africa, under 1 million in Sierra
Leone and 2 million in Rwanda. The absence of a specific mechanism
or support system to deal with the plight of the internally
displaced renders this group particularly vulnerable and less
likely to receive appropriate attention from the international
community. The situation of the internally displaced population
must be recognized, prioritized and appropriate assistance be
sought through UNHCR and other international organizations with
requisite mandate in specific areas of need.
70. The indirect toll is far heavier
on women and children. By disrupting basic social and health
services and by diverting scarce physical, human, financial,
material, scientific and technological resources to the development
of the machinery of death and destruction, millions of children
die from preventable diseases. Critical problems which take
the heaviest toll on children include nutritional anaemia, malnutrition-related
infection, diarrhoea and other immunizable diseases. An especially
pernicious effect of war are the psycho-social stresses resulting
from the breakdown of traditional family structures. This breakdown
is reflected in the increase of female-headed households, abandoned
and orphaned children. Violations of the fundamental rights
of women and girls are widespread and universal during times
of armed conflict and strife. These violations include torture,
rape, murder, disappearance and maltreatment. The widespread
and discriminate use of anti-personnel landmines increasingly
in internal conflicts has caused untold human suffering and
involuntary mass displacement of populations. Such use of landmines
inflict excessive damage on civilians in post-conflict situations.
71. Women are rarely included in the
decision-making processes related to conflict prevention, resolution
and management, or in peace-building initiative. Before conflicts
occur, women can be agents of peace and conflict prevention
by identifying root causes and opportunities for reconciliation.
During the collapse of communities, the role of women is also
crucial. They continue to pass on culture, traditions and values
to the next generation. They preserve human dignity and social
order in the midst of chaos and civil strife. They are the agents
of change for building a new society from the ashes of the old.
Although women are usually outside the decision-making processes
which have produced conflicts in the region, they have shown
their concern for the violent inter-State conflicts: at the
invitation of the Government of Uganda, in collaboration with
OAU and ECA, a Regional Conference on Women, Peace and Development
was convened. An important outcome of that Conference is the
Kampala Action Plan on Women and Peace. In the same sense, the
OAU Heads of States and Government at the June 1993 Summit established,
within OAU, a Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management
and Resolution.
72. Education is a key factor in development
and peace processes. The lack or low level of education of girls
and women is a main constraint to the empowerment of women politically,
economically and most specifically in the peace process. It
limits their access to both the productive resources and the
power structure. National Governments and non-governmental organizations
are urged to make every possible effort to improve the peace
capacities and capabilities of girls and women. Peace education
illuminates and advocates the necessity of eradicating all types
of violence in society, at family and community levels. It encourages
all people, and in particular girls and women, to take more
interest in politics, international affairs and all aspects
of decision-making. The participation of women in conflict resolution
is their right and their experience is valuable. Governments
in Africa should aim at gender parity in peace negotiation and
conflict resolutions and should take concrete steps to provide
women and men with the necessary training in this area. Moreover,
measures should be taken to bring women into peace- keeping,
both in civilian and military roles and to reinforce women's
roles as peace educators in the family and in society at large.
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I. Mainstreaming of gender-disaggregated
data
73. The absence of gender-disaggregated
data based on separate records for men and women, is a source
of gender blindness and gender bias against women. Women are
often invisible in statistics and if their unpaid housework
were computed as productive output in the national income accounts,
global outputs would be increased by more than 30 per cent.
74. Paragraph 364 of the Nairobi Forward-looking
Strategies stated that a stronger data and research base on
women should be developed in developing countries and in the
regional commissions, in collaboration with the appropriate
specialized agencies and that the sharing of information and
research data should be encouraged.
75. During the last decade, many African
countries have made improvements in the availability of data.
However, many gaps remain with respect both to coverage and
the quality of gender based and gender-disaggregated data. Even
more lacking has been the inclusion of perspectives on and by
women in the scarce data available. The availability of timely,
valid culturally relevant data is indispensable for gender-responsive
policies and programmes.
76. Lack of accurate and reliable data,
inadequate dissemination, analysis and effective use of these
data presents a handicap for the proper assessment of the contribution
of women, and the monitoring of relative improvements in their
status in the various sectors. A realistic assessment of the
level of women's advancement requires the collection, analysis,
utilization and dissemination of gender-aggregated statistical
data.
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J. Women, information, communication and arts
77. Although information is one of the
strongest tools of empowerment, women access and control of
media and other sources of information is limited. Most information
is targeted at urban areas. In addition, stereotyped portrayal
of women as objects rather than people contributing to the development
process immensely still continues. The existing type of information
does not respond to the needs of the majority of women particularly
in the countryside.
78. There is insufficient access to use of mass media in promoting
women positive contribution to society. In addition, stereotyped
portrayal of women as objects rather than people who are productive
prevails. K. The girl-child
79. The Convention on the Rights of the
Child gives the meaning of "child" as every human
being below the age of 18 and grants children rights relating
to their civil, political, social, economic and cultural lives.
However, all available indicators point to the fact that the
African girl-child is discriminated upon right from inception
resulting in less parental appreciation and care, poor nutrition
and unequal access to education.
80. The economic prospects of the developing
nations keep declining so also the hope of survival and empowerment
of the girl-child whose status is considered inferior right
from birth from an early age girls are socialized to put themselves
last.
81. Realizing that the girl-child of
today is the woman of tomorrow and in view of the noncontroversial
fact that the woman's roles are fundamental to the very existence
and subsequent progress of society, the girl-child's total upbringing
and holistic education needs equal attention and commitment
as that of the male child with the provision of subsidized education
for the girl as the African economies cannot provide free education
per se.
82. Statistics show that in the African
educational sector, the gross enrolment ratios for the girl-child
is still very low at 18 per cent while the drop-out rate stands
at 47.8 per cent as of 1992. There is also a clear trend of
low enrolment of girls in the secondary and tertiary levels
of education as well as in science, technology and mathematics.
The educational process reinforces existing gender inequalities
which in turn shapes the perceptions that influence curriculum
designers, textbook writers, audio-visual aid designers as well
as teachers, methodology, and pupils. Thus decisions on what
is to be learned by who and delivered by who are male-dominated.
This renders the curriculum inappropriate in relation to gender.
83. Widespread evidence from the majority
of African countries indicates that the health and quality of
life of girls becomes even more precarious at adolescence as
she is faced with the risks of exploitation and unwanted pregnancy,
leading on to rejection, abortion and discontinuation of education.
Faced with rejection by an unsympathetic society, she is then
exposed to the streets and the risks of sexually transmitted
diseases with their attendant health implications.
84. The economic conditions as well as
the high poverty ratio in developing nations coupled with the
socio-cultural values have brought about increased burdens on
girls who have at an early age to contribute to the family fortunes
either by hawking, trading or being married early at a price.
All these and traditional practices that are harmful to the
girls such as infibulation and puberty rites and the burden
of household chores, constrain the development and attainment
of full potentials of the girl-child.
