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Synthesis Report - Part 2 : Overview of the project findings

Study carried out under the CABECA project of PADIS (UN-ECA) as part of

the IDRC sponsored research program on the Impact of information on development

Michel J. Menou

1. Introduction

The project which is being reported here was originally called "Impact of electronic communications on development in Africa", consonant with the overall theme of the program of the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Canada through which it was supported. The research team felt that this title sounded too broad and ambitious with respect to the actual scope and outcome of the project. It thus decided to use the above main title for the final reports.

The final report of the project is made of a series of self-contained documents with a view to facilitate their further dissemination and use. The series include:

• Extended abstracts of the synthesis report and national reports;
• A synthesis report in two parts, one dealing with methodological issues, the other one with the overall findings and conclusions of the project;
• The reports of phase one and phase two of the national studies in Senegal, Uganda and Zambia and a consolidated report for phase one and two in Ethiopia, all in a revised version.

The reports will be available in print or electronic form from Mrs. Nancy Hafkin of DISD, ECA. They are also posted on the Web site of the African Information Society Initiative, whose URL is: http://www.uneca.org/aisi.

This part of the synthesis report is devoted to the overall findings and conclusions of the project. Readers are referred to the individual reports of the national investigators for more details. The present synthesis report has no intention to substitute them but tries to complement them by offering a common perspective. The background of the study, its methodology and the problems it offered are discussed in the first part of the synthesis report.

We wish to gratefully acknowledge the contribution and commitment of the other members of the international team which carried out the project: Mrs. Nancy Hafkin, (Officer in charge, PADIS, UN Economic Commission for Africa), Ms. Jane F. Asaba, (Coordinator, Documentation and Information, National AIDS Documentation and Information Centre (NADIC), Uganda AIDS Commission), Mr. Bernard Bazirake Bamuhiiga, (Senior systems Librarian, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda), Mr. Vitalicy Chifwepa, (Head, Department of Library and Information Studies, School of Education, University of Zambia), Mr. Abebe Rorissa, (Automation Librarian, Thomas Mofolo Library, National University of Lesotho), and Mr. Omar Diop, (Consultant, Dakar, Senegal).

2. Implementation of the study

The study was due to proceed as follows:

- 1^st Phase

• Identification of the population and sampling;
• Baseline survey using a questionnaire distributed by Electronic mail (Appendix A);
• Interviews of a sample of 50 subscribers among the respondents to the baseline survey.

- 2^nd Phase

• Second series of interviews with the same respondents;
• Interviews or group discussions with non users and decision-makers.

As discussed in the first part of the synthesis report, circumstances prevented the second phase to be the complete repeat of the first phase as initially planned. The coherence between the population surveyed and interviewed across the four countries, which was to some extent achieved in the first phase could not either be kept in the second phase. The second phase thus encompassed the following activities:

• Restoring the lists of subscribers to be surveyed and/or interviewed;
• Complementing the baseline survey using a simplified questionnaire (Appendix B);
• Conducting a survey of all subscribers about the use of the Internet with a questionnaire distributed by Electronic mail(Appendix C);
• Second series of interviews with the same respondents as in the first phase.

Table 1 below summarizes the main steps in the implementation of the study. The discrepancies in the periods when the data were collected in each country are not such that they might affect the overall coherence of the results in this respect. As a matter of fact each country is rather living in a particular time according to its history in the area of electronic communications with regard to both the extension of connectivity and regulations.

The baseline survey was due to be distributed to all active users of the Cabeca or Fido nodes in a reference period (January - February / March 1995) which was itself considered as fairly representative or the normal traffic. The subscribers' migration to other ISPs caused discrepancies between the two phases. Tables 2 and 3 below shows the response rates to the various surveys in both phases.

Table 1 Time table of the project activities

Table 2. Response rates for the baseline survey

Table 3. Response rates for the survey of Internet use

The structure of the tentative sample for the interviews was shown in the first part of the synthesis report. The tentative target number of 50 interviews in each country was decided on the basis of the estimates by the national investigators of the time required and available in order to carry out the task. The interviews were supposed to be conducted using either an analytical or "historical" schedule (Appendix D). We wanted to secure both representativeness and homogeneity across countries of the persons to be interviewed.. Due to the circumstances, the size and structure of the groups which were actually interviewed were quite different. All those interviewed did in principle fill the baseline questionnaire. Note that in Uganda 20 persons were interviewed during the first phase and 18 testimonies were later on collected by electronic mail using a simplified list of questions in order to complement the survey. In Senegal, especially in the second phase, some of the interviews have been reported as being group discussions or testimonies obtained by electronic mail. The population interviewed in the second phase was different from the one interviewed in the first phase, except perhaps in Senegal. Further more the schedules were adapted in each country in order to possibly take into account the effects of access to the Internet. One has thus rather a single series of interviews, stretched over the time and with variations in scope, than the expected repetition. Table 4 below shows the number of interviews achieved in each phase.

Table 4. Implementation of the interviews

* Data not available

Key: ACA = Academic & Research; GOV = Government organizations and parastatals;

PRIV = Private sector companies &individuals; NGO = Non governmental organizations; IGO = International and foreign governmental organizations

3. Characteristics of the population

Through the baseline survey, the study tried to check how a number of characteristics were represented whose role is often regarded as influencing the use of electronic communications.

Gender

As shown in table 5, the gender distribution is predominantly male. It would be interesting to verify if this distribution is similar to the one found in the respective categories of staff, as it seems, or if there are signs of relative advantage or prejudice for women in relation to the use of information technologies. The HealthNet evaluation (Evaluation unit, 1994) noted that professional women were under represented among the users while the proportion of clerical staff was high.

Table 5. Gender distribution of respondents (in percent)

Age

Collecting data on this item proved even more difficult than expected. Those obtained are too scarce and dubious for drawing any reliable indication. The rate of no response on this item was as high as 28% in Uganda. It seems that the majority of users is likely to be found in the age group between 30 and 45. It would be worth investigating the relationship between hierarchical level, seniority, age and the use of information technologies. The HealthNet evaluation (Evaluation unit, 1994) noted that electronic communications were said to be more available to the higher levels of the hierarchy than to line staff. If confirmed this fact may cause some difficulty as the more senior and older staff, the more likely it is to have not been trained in the use of computers and telecommunications. Conversely, management which is itself fluent in computer usage seems to be more concerned with the application of the technology.

Nationality

The special issues raised by the proportion of nationals and expatriates within the users' population were discussed in the first part of the report. Table 6 below shows the data obtained; in Zambia, expatriates and non-responses were counted together in the second phase. In order to get a more precise view of the links between the expatriates and the development of the countries, we tried to obtain the proportion of permanent residents (5 years or more) versus temporary residents (below 5 years). It is shown in table 7.

Table 6. Distribution of respondents by nationality (in percent)

Table 7. Proportion of permanent versus temporary residents (in percent)

The examination of their other characteristics, patterns of use, benefits and difficulties did not reveal any significant difference with the national users. The size of the groups is however too small for drawing any firm conclusion. Furthermore, it is the demonstration and training function of expatriates who are experimented users of electronic communications in relation to their local colleagues which would deserve particular attention.

Educational level

As one may expect the educational level of the electronic mail users is quite high. The data obtained suggest that few are below undergraduate university education. The educational levels of national and expatriate users did not show much difference. Caution should be exerted in the interpretation of the data. The indications given by the respondents may not be fully reliable or precise enough. It was also difficult to align the degrees in the French style educational system with those of the anglo-american one without knowing where the degrees were obtained.

As a matter of fact the place and date of the university education, and possibly the discipline, may be a more decisive factor in relation to the exposure to electronic communications, or computer use, than the level of the degree. It will nevertheless be interesting to watch the evolution of the proportion of users with the lowest levels of education which may point to the generalization of the facility.

Table 8. Educational level of respondents (in percent)

Language

Our attempt at assessing the language barrier was not very successful either. Most authors (e.g. Brown, 1994, p. 63; Sagna and Denis, 1996, p. 144) highlighted the domination of English as an obstacle to the international use of electronic communications, but little is known in practice about its effects. The observation of international discussion groups shows that participation from countries where English is not the communication language tend to be quite low. In Senegal 40% of the respondents indicated that they speak English and 45% that they can read it. In Ethiopia, 91% of the national users indicated that they knew English. In Uganda 67% of respondents whose mother tongue was another one said they were fluent in English and about one third that they also knew another language; interestingly, USA and UK respondents did not indicate any other language.

One should probably better fine tune the approach of language as an ability or obstacle to the use of electronic communications by considering the mother tongue, the language in which higher education was taken, the working language and the communication language in the country. The spread of English as a working language, or second language in countries which use another communication language will be interesting to observe. This is especially true for Portuguese and Spanish speaking countries of Africa, which may suffer more from isolation. Observation rather than a questionnaire survey will provide insights in this complex issue.

Computer skills and electronic mail experience

Significant national differences seem to exist in relation to the level of computer skills, as shown in Table 9. They are partially reflected in the replies regarding the way electronic mail is being sent. The high proportion of Senegalese respondents who consider themselves as beginners would be worth validating both within this country and among other non English speaking countries. Computer skills were found, as one may expect, associated with the intensity of use.

Table 9. Computer skills (in percent)

The previous use of electronic communications was tentatively analyzed taking 1993 (more than 3 years) as the break point, since it is the date when electronic mail became generally accessible in the countries under study. Only fragmentary data, shown in table 10, were obtained. With more data points, it would be worth considering the difference in the duration of experience between national and expatriate users in order to ascertain the role eventually played by studies and work abroad in familiarizing users with electronic communications, and therefore pre-determining their perceptions and expectations.

Table 10. Duration of use of electronic mail (in percent)

Professional affiliation

The professional affiliation of the respondents (R) is shown in Table 11. It presents, as one may expect, noteworthy discrepancies with the distribution found among all subscribers in the reference population (S). The scope of each category is itself subject to varying interpretations, e.g. academic institutions or public research centers being listed as Government agencies as was often the case in Uganda. It further proved impossible to distinguish private individual subscribers from business ones, thus the single category. The structure of the population studies in Zambia during the second phase could not be established for lack of data; it may present marked differences with the one found in the first phase. It seems that government organizations and private sector organizations have subscribed to electronic communications services at a later stage than academic and research ones, especially when full Internet access became available. Their share in the total population is likely to have grown significantly in all countries compared to the "Fido" era. The private sector users appeared also to be more suspicious about the survey; they are certainly under-represented in the present findings.

Table 11. Distribution of respondents' and subscribers' professional affiliation (in percent)

Key: ACA = Academic & Research; GOV = Government organizations and parastatals;

PRIV = Private sector companies &individuals; NGO = Non governmental organizations; IGO = International and foreign governmental organizations

The indications provided by the respondents regarding their particular profession or specialties, principal activities and responsibilities are too general and inconsistent from one country to the other to allow for any meaningful comparison or analysis. This one more type of data which can only be obtained through interviews and observation.

[end of first part]

CABECA Synthesis report Part 2 Findings DRAFT

Part 2 / 4

Number or users per account

The convenience of using electronic communication facilities, thus the intensity of the use by individual users, is dependent on the availability of a connected computer. When a single machine is serving a large number of users, one may expect that the individuals' use will be constrained. Without direct observation it is difficult to have an accurate perception of this aspect. The indications obtained from the questionnaires which are summarized in table 12 are nevertheless interesting. One may wonder if it is the exposure to electronic communications or the availability of more effective services which is prompting the development of equipment as the data from the second phase in Uganda and Zambia seem to suggest. Single use is also likely to be linked with resources; in Ethiopia, 60% of the sole users are expatriates

Table 12. Number of users per account

Use of multiple networks

In countries where full Internet has been recently introduced it seems that, for the time being, a number of subscribers retain their account with the Fidonet node and use it in parallel with their Internet account, though to a much lesser extent. As Robinson (1996, p. 208) noted the continuation of Fidonet use may be linked with delays in upgrading the physical infrastructure and training needs. When several networks are available, the proportion of organizations running multiple accounts seems to be relatively low (10 to 20%).

Payment for electronic communications

In all countries the cost of electronic communications is predominantly born by the organizations to which respondents belong, or through projects implemented by these organizations as shown in table 13. The latter source of funding is of concern as it often causes an interruption of the service at the end of the project. Among the respondents who pay themselves is a high proportion, e.g. 60% in Ethiopia of private or individual users. Informal sources have also pointed to a negative effect of the privatization of public telephone operators. The budget allotments is often delivered with noteworthy delays to government organizations, thus preventing them to pay their bills in time. With public monopolies this usually had limited consequences, but with commercial operators the telephone lines are cut after a short time with all the consequences one can imagine upon electronic communications.

Table 13. Payment for electronic communications

Information and telecommunications facilities in the organizations

Except in Ethiopia, the number of respondents who feel that the information facilities available in their organizations are adequate is quite high, as shown in table X. below. But the number of those holding the opposite view is also significant. The data does not allow to make any link between the information facilities available and the use of electronic communications. One may hypothesize that the richness of the information environment has a unique effect. If it is high, it raises the desire for more resources and facilitates the identification of potential sources. If it is low, the need for overcoming the drawback is more pressing. Thus the role of electronic communications as a means to strengthen information resources would be secondary compared to personal networking. The data on the purposes of use below seem to support the hypothesis. It will be interesting to watch how these factors evolve over time.

Table 14. Information facilities

The survey did not provide the data we would have needed regarding the telecommunications facilities available. It seems that all organizations have at least one telephone line. Fax is not available in a small number of cases (e.g. 20% in Ethiopia, 4% in Zambia). Given their wide availability, it might be more appropriate to consider the frequency of use and failure of both facilities. Some indication about the way they are used can be drawn from the figures presented in table 15. Data about other facilities (telex and radio) were provided only in Ethiopia. Respondents in Zambia and Uganda said the communications facilities available in their organizations are appropriate in 66% and 61.4% of the cases respectively.

Table 15. Use of other facilities for communication (in percent; multiple choices)

Some indications about the substitution effect of electronic communications were obtained from the first survey in Uganda. They replace Fax in 28%of the cases, Mail in 26.5%, Telephone in 25%, Travel in 12.1% and Telex in 8.3%.

Mode of using electronic communications

We did not succeed in obtaining detailed information about the use of computers for sending and receiving electronic mail. It would be useful to know for instance if the users have their own computer connected or should use a computer dedicated to electronic communications and where the latter is located. Other studies have shown that the farther the machine, the lower the use. . Network accessibility was for instance identified by Abels and co-workers (1996, p. 156) as the primary factor in the decision to use electronic communications by the faculty of small US colleges. Fragmentary data from Ethiopia and Zambia tend to indicate that less than 20% of respondents have access to electronic communications through the computer on their own desk. The connection of the computers to a LAN which is itself connected to the Internet is another situation which may make electronic communications easier and thus wider used.

Table 16 shows the distribution between office and home use. The use of computer at home, though limited, is significant in Uganda and Zambia, and to a lesser extent in Ethiopia. It is much lower in Senegal, but this is possibly due to the high proportion of respondents employed in government organizations. Cost and technical reasons are obvious limitations to an utilization at home, which may also be hindered by socio-cultural factors.

Table16. Places where electronic communications are used

We were also interested in knowing how the facility was used, one the assumption that personal and direct manipulation was manifesting a higher level of integration. Intermediaries seem to play an important role which does not match the declared computer literacy and may be associated with status and other socio-cultural conditions. We tried to obtain details about the process, e.g. whether messages were dictated to an intermediary, or passed to him/her as a written draft, or on a floppy disk, but too few responses were received. We can only see from table 17 the rough distribution between personal and indirect input.

Table 17. Mode of sending messages

Intensity of use

The intensity of use was first assessed by analyzing as shown in table 18 below the number of messages sent using the traffic data for the reference period (January-February/March 1995) according to a standard formula. Data collected in the second phase are also available for Uganda and Senegal. In Uganda they are based on the average of traffic data for the three months of April, August and October 1996, using the same definitions of intensity as in the firs phase. The intensity was further observed from the responses obtained in the baseline questionnaire, which are presented in the following tables.

The respondents in the survey seem to belong to the more active group of users. It is in a way quite natural that they feel more concerned. The picture resulting from the survey may be quite different from the one which the users' population as a whole could offer. A study in which all types of users would be taken into account could only be made with the full cooperation of the access providers.

Table 18. Intensity of outgoing traffic (in percent)

Table 19. Frequency at which Email is sent and received (1^st phase data in percent)

Table 20. Frequency at which Email is sent and received (2^nd phase data in percent)

Purposes for which electronic mail is used

The respondents were asked to indicate the main purposes for which electronic mail is used. Multiple choices were possible. Categories might have been interpreted in a different fashion and should not be taken too strictly. It seems also that personal mail was eventually underestimated, especially in the first survey in Zambia. The resulting picture appears in Table 21 in which each cell shows first the percentage and second the rank of the activity, noted R=.

There seems to be a relative homogeneity across the countries. From the high scores of Exchanging of ideas, Personal mail, Receiving technical advice and Exchange of documents one may infer that electronic communications were at that time primarily a means of breaking isolation. The relatively lower scores of activities like Conducting regular business, Providing technical advice, Managing projects indicate that the facility was not yet integrated into business processes. This is probably related to the deficiencies of the infrastructure as much as the perpetuation of established routines.

Table 21 Main purposes for using electronic mail

Destination of the communications

At the moment, the most important functions of electronic communications appear to be focused on professional and personal interaction. They are a quite obvious solution for overcoming the disadvantages resulting from geographical and institutional isolation, as Bruce (1995, p 191) highlighted in the case of Australian academics. Securing effective contacts abroad and breaking the international isolation was also found to be a key motivation in Malawi (Nyirenda, 1996, p. 186). The respondents in our study indicated that two third or more of their messages are sent outside Africa. Between 7 and 14% are sent to other African countries. The proportion of messages sent within the country is thus quite small. From the analysis by type of institution carried out in Ethiopia, it seems that this is a common pattern.

It would be interesting to watch if the traffic within the country and with other African countries increases as the infrastructure expands and electronic communications become more widespread, or if it remains roughly at this level, what may indicate deeper socio-cultural traits. Another key aspect which cannot be studied without close observation is the diversification of the geographic location and activities of the correspondents. One question being whether electronic communications will facilitate wider contacts or on the contrary reinforce the dominant ones.

Importance of electronic mail

As one may expect the vast majority of respondents declared that communications were essential to the conduct of their business (table 22). It seems however that there is a slight decline of enthusiasm from the first to the second phase, what may be connected with the experience or fear of information overload.

Table 22 Importance of communications

In the baseline survey respondents were asked to indicate at least three major improvements and difficulties brought in the respondents work by the use of electronic communications and at least three major technical constraints they face in using electronic communications. The replies to the first pair of questions were more geared at the use of electronic communications themselves than the professional activities for which they were used. A drawback which unfortunately was reproduced in the interviews. In addition the distinction between the two last items was often not made. The results are presented in this section. In order to facilitate comparisons, data were converted into a percentage of the total number of indications. The rank of each item in the particular survey is indicated after R= under the percentage in tables 23 to 25. The interviews were supposed to expand and refine these considerations, on the one hand, and relate them to the essential tasks of the persons, on the other hand. Because of the particularities of the source and data, results are presented in a separate section which follows this one..

Improvements brought by electronic mail

From the replies obtained, four main categories of improvements can be distinguished. They are shown in table 23. The first one, which is stressed by a vast majority of respondents, is related to the cost effectiveness of communications. The second one, in order of appearance because of its logical link with the previous one, deals more with practical convenience in handling documents; but it seems to come rather in third position with regard to its importance. The third one is more related to the respondents activities themselves. Increased contacts and exchanges mentioned in this group appears in fact to be the second improvement in importance. This validates the hypothesis for the study that in their early stage of development electronic communications would contribute to development by breaking people's isolation and allowing them to interact more widely and effectively with the rest of the world. What further improvements this will possibly bring to their professional skills and output requires more time to be observable.

Table 23 Improvements brought by electronic mail

The range of new opportunities, functionalities and services is eventually mentioned, to a much lesser extent. A fourth category relates to access to a broader array of information resources or keeping abreast with one's field.

Consequences on the effectiveness of individuals or organizations, or their organization, e.g. overcoming bureaucracy, are seldom addressed. Beyond shrinking resources, bureaucratic conservatism may be a key factor in the low and slow penetration of electronic communications within government agencies which our results tend to show, even though signs of change were noted at least in Zambia. Musisi (1996, p. 165) mentioned a similar trend

Difficulties resulting from the use of electronic mail

The replies to this question seem to demonstrate, interestingly at this early stage, both impatience and frustration with electronic communications as can be seen in table 24.

Table 24 Difficulties brought by the use of electronic mail

Insecurity of delivery and lack of confidentiality are apparently the major difficulties. It is significant that information overload comes close to them. The third set of difficulties, such as time spent electronic communications and in handling computer files; may be to a large extent due to a lack of computer and telecommunications skills and inadequate training and backstopping. Even though electronic communications are seen as much more cost-effective than other means, they nevertheless already bring an increase in telephone bills which administrators may not properly appreciate. A last group of problems relates to the effect of a deficient computer and telecommunication infrastructure upon activities which have become dependent on them.

Managers, telecommunication operators and ISPs should probably pay much attention to the fact that modern information technologies seem to be much addictive. Someone who was used to wait weeks or even months for a reply to his/her letter sent abroad may get very upset not to log in immediately. While much emphasis is placed in the reorganization of workflows and users training on the greater effectiveness of electronic communication, it may be advisable to also prepare people to cope with their limitations and very special unpredictability.

Technical constraints in using electronic mail

To some extent replies to this questions (table 25) are echoing those to the previous item. Lack of direct access to the Internet applies of course for Fidonet users and might progressively vanish. The first group of problems is pointing to material limitations, which are consistently presented as the major obstacle Africa has to face. Beyond their material aspects, these shortages are also linked with insufficient financial resources, referred to in the second cluster. Getting the infrastructure in place is by no means sufficient, especially in an area where obsolescence runs at light speed. Managers and policy-makers would be well advised not to overlook operation expenses, maintenance and upgrading of the equipment. What in itself may require one more cultural change, especially in the public sector. The limitations of the computer and telecommunications infrastructure are naturally affecting electronic mail, especially when demand is growing at a tremendous pace. Robinson, (1996, p. 211) predicted that ZAMNET, one Internet access network in Zambia, could well be overstretched in one year time. The limited connectivity beyond the capital city and major towns was also stressed as a limiting factor. Another one, for what concerns the internal traffic, is the still low number of subscribers and possibly the high proportion of multi-users accounts.

The third set of constraints is in our view a very important one, to the extent users' training and backstopping are usually dealt with in the most superficial fashion as part of computerization programs. The last group, related to another series of limitations which are in part technical, is also related to the same deficiency of training. The advantages of electronic communication will not be concretized if people do not know not only how to operate, but what is feasible, what resources are there, and, not less important, how to organize themselves, individually and collectively in order to take the fullest possible advantage o the technology.

It is not less interesting to see cost considerations appearing already, in relation to searching the Web and the charges for the calls to the access points for those leaving outside of the capital cities. In relation to the Web, one may suspect that both excitement and inexperience are resulting in excessive connection time. The interviews as well as other studies indicated that the use of the Web is more intense by those users who do not pay the telephone bill directly. The cost of electronic communications was pointed to as a deterrent, even for electronic mail (this is even more true for databases or Web searches).

Table 25 Constraints in the use of electronic mail

Interestingly, one Internet access provider interviewed in our study explained the high costs of electronic mail by four factors:

- The narrow customer base,

- The cost of connectivity to Internet,

- The low capacity of the line connecting to the Internet, and

- The use of high charges for maintaining the number of subscribers small and manageable.

The set of factors associated with connectivity which should be combined for a positive impact to be eventually observed includes in particular:

*Human factors: Computer literacy; Training in the use of general and communication software; Training in Internet resources; Availability of technical back stopping and trouble shooting

*Information and communication technologies: Responsive ISPs; Simple and

robust telecommunication softwares; Expanded and transparent interoperability

*Physical infrastructure: line reliability, exchange reliability, local access

numbers; bandwidth, power supply, procurement of spare parts, maintenance

*Systems and processes: Communications policies and procedures adjusted to

electronic communications;

*Financial: Availability of a budget for access and telecommunications; Timely allocation of funds

*Plant capacity: Ease of access to connected computers; Sufficient number of

computers

*External links: Pre-existing network of contacts; Availability of

directories;

Availability of gateways; Availability of locally produced or relevant

electronic resources: Critical mass of connected institutions and individuals

*Policy and environment: Enforcement of universal access; Local call pricing

for Internet access; Lowering of access fees and telecommunications charges;

[end of part 2]

CABECA Synthesis report Part 2 Findings DRAFT

Part 3 / 4

6. The changes resulting from electronic communications

This section is based upon the findings from the interviews and testimonies collected by electronic mail. They were supposed to focus on electronic mail but their scope stretched to the other facilities available as full Internet access became available. The structure of the sample was shown in Table 4 above. Unfortunately national investigators did not manage to compile the relevant data from the baseline surveys which would have depicted the various characteristics of the respondents. It seems however that those primarily involved in research and education range from at least one and up to three quarters of the population. The business community is also ill represented in all countries.

The interviews were supposed to start from the identification of the most critical activity in the respondents business. Then one would the role of communications for the success of this activity would have been specified. From that point, the interviews would have proceeded with comparing the advantages and difficulties of the communication functions before and after the availability of electronic communications, in order to identify their consequences upon the effectiveness of the activity. At the end, a balance between the two situations would have been drawn.

Only very general indications were eventually obtained regarding the business of the respondents. Very few replies pointed to critical activities and they did so in very general terms such as: teaching, managing resources, liaising with other organizations, planning, or relief operations. Neither was it possible to get respondents focus on the effects of the communication facilities on the implementation of their tasks or their professional capabilities. Reasons for this have been discussed in the first part of the report.

Even though most respondents said that they face communication related problems in implementing their critical activities, in many instances they could not pinpoint the specific problems. In some instances there might be a cultural inhibition toward acknowledging problems; this may explain that some 80% of respondents indicated that they experience no major problem in executing their duties. The few communication issues which were mentioned were repeated when addressing the difficulties experienced prior to having access to electronic communications. We have thus merged the two items in order to limit repetition. Given the small size and heterogeneity of the population, on the one hand, and the variety of answers, on the other hand, an attempt at compiling scores for the answers would have been vain if not misleading. We have tried to extract and organize topics emerging from the interviews which could highlight the present scene and point to its future evolution.

Before having access to electronic communications

Difficulties and their causes

The difficulties which are usually mentioned are related to:

1. carrying routine transactions with other organizations;
2. access to the information required for the preparation or implementation of activities;
3. dissemination of information related to the results of the activities or about available products and services:
4. preparation of meetings, visits, travel.

With regard to current transactions, respondents often stressed such inconveniences as the delays in, or even impossibility of, communications, the uncertainty about the reception of messages or documents, the limitations to the amount of information which can be sent or the number of recipients which can be reached at once, the clerical work involved in reproducing and distributing the information. Transactions with organizations located in other countries were particularly affected. In relation to information access, the ability to keep abreast with current developments and the availability of up-to-date information were highlighted. They are made more critical by the inadequate library and information resources and by bureaucratic rigidities, to which Ethiopian respondents seem to be particularly sensitive

Three types of factors are said to cause these problems:

• Economical,
• Technical,
• Human.

The economical constraints are twofold. In first place the cost of all communication services (telephone, fax; mail, courier) especially for international liaisons is judged excessive, if not prohibitive, especially for international communications. In second place, the budgets available for the acquisition, maintenance and operation of the telecommunication equipment, and for current expenses related to communication do not allow for satisfying the needs, even at a minimal level. Budget restrictions also affect the availability of skilled staff to implement the communication functions The cost of communication and also prohibitive customs policies regarding telecommunication equipment are aggravating the situation.

Technical problems may be divided between those associated with the public infrastructure and services, and those associated with the organizations' facilities. The first subset is the most common target of complaints. The mail services are slow, inefficient, insecure and irreliable. Telecommunication infrastructures are outdated, have a low capacity, are congested, suffer frequent breakdowns. Lines are poor for voice and data traffic. Power cuts are also blamed. Complaints are more acute from people living outside of the capital cities, though not necessarily in remote rural areas. Within the organizations themselves, the equipment is in short supply, what often requires it to be shared and thus access to them is limited. The shortage may also call for procedures and other bureaucratic constraints which are supposed to regulate and improve the use of the facilities, such as allocating external phone lines to the senior staff only. The equipment is also often outdated if not out of order. Ground transportation is the most common alternative to deficient telecommunications or mail. But in many instances its availability and reliability is not any better.

A number of factors related to human resources are also mentioned, though by few respondents and less often. Among them are: the lack of training, poor language proficiency, lack of security (theft, etc.) or lack of response from the correspondents, lack of awareness or appreciation for modern information technology.

Effects and possible solutions

The most often mentioned consequences of these problems are related to losses of:

• Time,
• Effectiveness,
• Money.

Time is wasted in communications, or their substitutes such as visits, eventually in vain. Information is not received in time, activities are delayed , deadlines cannot be met. The quality and effectiveness of decisions and routine activities are affected. Activities cannot be carried out to the required extent. The individual performance of staff and units, and their interaction level are reduced. Staff awareness cannot be secured. Expenses are high, especially with regard to the results, while opportunities for funding may be lost.

In order to overcome these difficulties several courses of action were open. The most obvious and most unlikely was to obtain the allocation of sufficient funds so that adequate facilities could be available. Alternatively avoiding management bottlenecks, planning ahead and anticipating difficulties could provide an answer to some extent. If necessary the use of costly courier services could be an adequate, though occasional, response. In most cases the way out was to be sought in adapting oneself to the circumstances, using alternative channels, using hand delivery, developing personal networks, informal exchanges and cooperation, using hand delivery and above all cultivating persistence. Otherwise one had to satisfy oneself with the communication means and information resources at hand and available locally. A number of respondents also pointed to earlier moves toward using electronic communications, what would have required more awareness of information technology on behalf of policy makers

After having access to electronic communications

Improvements

As can be expected a few respondents said that nothing had improved, or it was difficult or too early to tell. The improvements mentioned mostly affect the following areas:

• transactions for communicating,
• access to, and dissemination of, information,
• interaction,
• cost,
• performance.

Indications related to transactions are the most numerous and explicit. The vast majority of respondents stressed the convenience of electronic communications. They are said to be more convenient than telephone, fax, mail and face to face communication for a variety of reasons. One is their availability whenever the need arises, assuming the limitations to be discussed later are not jeopardizing it. They are perceived as faster, even though no estimates of the improvements in speed could be obtained. Much emphasis is put on their flexibility and integration, e.g. possibility of sending faxes as well as electronic mail, manipulation of files, multiple distribution, convenience of editing, copying, forwarding and storing, possibility of transferring large quantities of data, etc. The same tool used to create the message or document can be used to send the information unlike the fax. Knowing the difficulty of obtaining office supplies in many African organizations, one would not be surprised to find the independence from paper, pen, ink, envelopes and stamps highlighted among the advantages of electronic mail.

Greater convenience is mentioned also in relation to the time and effort required for communicating. As long as a machine and line are available, messages can be sent at any time. There is no need to wait for the correspondent to become available. Many respondents claim that they are spending less time in communicating, or may be rather in getting their messages through. Replies can be obtained without delays, what is an enormous advantage, especially when compared to mail. As a result urgently needed information can be obtained upon short notice; it is even possible to take advantage of time zones differences in order to speed up the exchanges. Even though difficulties are mentioned with regard to reliability and confidentiality, respondents acknowledged that electronic mail is generally reliable, far more in any case than postal services. There is some degree of control over undelivered outgoing mail. Incoming mail can be protected by password and is less exposed to losses than paper. Communications are said to have been greatly improved and have become more intense

Respondents usually note that improvements in the access to and dissemination of information are radically transformed by electronic communications. In addition to the convenience aspects already mentioned, they appreciate the fact that documents need not to be formalized. The range, variety and availability of resources have expanded, especially through the Web. The benefits are noteworthy for education and research which can compensate the limitations of local resources by using external databases, electronic journals, obtain material from conferences and meetings which cannot be attended. Electronic mail helps in locating information otherwise out of reach and to keep abreast with on-going activities in one's field as well as in any area of interest. Ordering and receiving documents, or sending them has become easy even if they are bulky. The information produced can be put at the disposition of limitless people through the Web.

Most respondents also noted improvements in their level of interaction. They have contacts with more people and organizations, in their countries and abroad, and they communicate more with them, for both sending and receiving messages. They reply and get answers much faster. The informality of electronic communications plays a role in this respect, as well as the fact that the constraints imposed on paper correspondence by the registries are bypassed. Within organizations the periodicity of communications between the various units has increased in some cases, while contacting local branches and offices has become easier. Transactions with external bodies, such as support institutions, donors, consultants, are facilitated. So is the receipt of tenders or other business information. It is easy to form networks for sharing information and exchanging ideas, research findings, proposals. Cooperation in research and publishing is facilitated. The interaction with colleagues abroad, external examiners and supervisors has become fast and effective.

Cost saving is one of the most obvious and praised advantages of electronic communications even though actual figures are not provided. First, the expenses associated with the traditional channels of communication, such as stationery, stamps, operation of vehicles, are reduced. Second, the cost of telecommunications is significantly reduced, for the same level of traffic, compared to voice and fax. Third, a much greater amount of information can be exchanged while still keeping communication expenses well under what they were with traditional means. In some instances the prohibitive cost of fax would have prevented sending or receiving large documents.

Improvements in performance of the individuals or the organizations are less often mentioned. The most commonly noted benefits are related to the handling of communication processes themselves, which have become more effective and faster. Eventually bureaucratic rigidities can be overcome, especially in dealing with urgent matters. Many respondents seem to be sensitive to the time saved, improved time management which result in faster decision and action. The ease and speed of communication help clarifying misunderstandings. One direct effect is the greater ability to meet deadlines and make arrangements for activities such as travel and meetings. The monitoring and management of projects is one of the examples mentioned where electronic mail has brought significant improvements. Mention was also made of enhancements of the quality of research and teaching due to the provision of scientific literature and teaching materials and improved exchanges with peers. It seems however that only a minority of respondents is perceiving improvements of their professional efficiency as a result of using electronic communications.

Old and new difficulties and their causes

Despite the rather long list of positive changes which was summarized above, many respondents feel that the same difficulties and problems that existed before they had access to electronic communications still exist, partially or totally. One may even observe the emergence of a series of new problems as a result of the use of electronic communications. It is also remarkable that the perception of these problems seem to have become more acute from one phase to the other.

Among the transactions difficulties, limitations of the availability of the system and delays in the delivery of messages or receipt of answers are often mentioned. Some users are concerned with the reliability of the delivery and the lack of confidentiality. The present technical limitations to the range of documents which can be sent are also seen as a problem, as for instance the inability to send original documents, pictures or photocopies. Lack of access to the Internet or interruptions in the service are frustrating users who have become dependent on it. The imposition on the users time which result not only of the use of electronic communications (preparing, sending, retrieving messages, replying to incoming mail, browsing, etc.) the but more importantly of the amount of information available and the quantity of irrelevant or unwanted information, is already perceived as a serious problem, at least by a significant minority. Complaints of too much haste and lack of time are already emerging. The consequences of an excess of information available or exchanged are complicated by the lack of a suitable organization or directories which could help finding more readily what one wants. The frustration is augmented by restrictions of access such as the need to subscribe to certain services or the unavailability of full text documents. Some respondents stressed in addition the lack of local information to be exchanged. It is interesting to note that even at this relatively early stage complaints are aired about the information overload and fears that the development of local networks and electronic information resources could be neglected. This latter aspect was also stressed by Sagna and Denis (1996, p. 147).

The first cause of the difficulties is seen in inadequate funding and resources by a majority of respondents. In a number of organizations there is no budget for communications which could cover the cost of electronic communications. This is aggravated by the fact that the traffic tends to grow and the telephone bills alike, especially with tariffs which are judged excessive by many respondents. The situation is even worst in provinces when access nodes require long distance calls. As a result, except in large organizations like universities, the use of services other than electronic mail tend to be reduced. In some instance the cost of this service is even judged excessive and the service is abandoned.

The advent of electronic communications cannot whip off the deficiencies of the public infrastructure. Poor lines and exchanges, especially in the provinces, breakdowns, traffic congestion continue to be blamed. One may even expect that the traffic and demand increases will make the situation worse. In some cases power instability or cuts are also mentioned. As was the case in most countries, the access nodes have difficulty coping with a growing traffic. Many users complain about congestion and the resulting delays or eventually losses of messages. Neither has the telecommunication and computing equipment of most organizations been expanded or upgraded in order to cope with the new requirements. Many users have to operate on old and slow machines with limited storage capacity and slow modems. The maintenance of the equipment and the availability of supplies and spare parts are also a problem, especially in the provinces when service has to be provided from the capital city. The sharing of facilities makes things even more complicated. Access during working hours is often difficult, while it is impossible after . At the present stage of development, too few organizations are connected within each country. This is particularly the case in the public sector. Correspondents and sources of information are thus naturally found more in the industrialized countries.

Human factors are playing a more important role than before the use of electronic communication and this role seem to me more widely acknowledged in the second phase. This may be in part due to the fact that many users were still in the process of acquainting themselves with the Internet or trying out the technology. There is first a lack of general computer literacy. A large number of respondents pointed to their insufficient skills for using the communication softwares and Internet clients and insufficient knowledge of Internet services and resources in general. This is aggravated by the lack of proper training and support, and the lack of manuals for the softwares in use and guides or learning material. The documentation available often proves ineffective to cope with actual problems. Eventually the connection to the Internet is followed only by a rushed demonstration. According to some respondents, service providers do not seem to be much interested in providing their customers with training. Institutional rigidities play their part in accordance with the particular cultures. For instance, in those government services where the signature is required for official communication, electronic mail cannot solve much. Manpower restrictions, or absence of substitution, also have damageable consequences when related to computer specialists who can assist end users and do the trouble shooting.

Consequences and possible solutions

For a minority, the difficulties have the same effects as before they had access to electronic communications. Ineffective communications are still affecting their activities. In a significant number of cases, the above mentioned limitations prevent the expectations of electronic communications to be fully met. The use of services is restrained, or even discarded while other channels, such as fax continue to be used beyond what they should. Communications within the country are limited. In general the situation seems to be more contrasted. On the one hand communication problems continue to result in delays and difficulties in conducting business. On the other hand access to electronic communications has brought noteworthy improvements, resulting in more efficient and undisrupted activities.

In addition to the necessary improvements in the national infrastructure and services, the allocation of sufficient resources is seen as the desirable solution. An increase of competition among the service providers may make them more responsive to the needs of their customers, especially for what concerns training and support. Acquiring in-house the competence required for trouble shooting was also mentioned. At least one respondent stressed the need for redefining priorities. And of course, with or without electronic communications, patience and repetition may do better than rage.

Overall change

The vast majority of the respondents in all the countries judged the overall change to be positive. At the time the study reported here was carried out, electronic mail was used mostly as a more effective and cheaper substitute to telephone, fax, mail or other means of communication rather than as a tool in its own right and capabilities. This initial pattern had been noted in previous studies (e.g. Fall, 1996, p. 149). In order for the positive changes to be sustained, respondents call, as one may expect for support from both governments and donor agencies.

The six main areas in which respondents mentioned that action was required in order for electronic communications to continue their development are:

• Allocation of adequate funding for equipment and communication expenses;
• Improving the telecommunications infrastructure (bandwidth, connection to the Internet) and the universal service;
• Reducing the cost of telecommunications and connection to the Internet what competition among ISPs could contribute to;
• Strengthening of the computer systems (more and better equipment, better maintained, interconnected, with more user-friendly softwares and better users support);
• Training in general computer use, telecommunications, network resources and use of electronic communications;
• Increasing connectivity within the countries themselves and expanding the local information resources.

Population surveyed

As mentioned in the first part of the synthesis report, we felt that if the study would keep its initial narrow focus on Fidonet based electronic mail, the replies by a majority of users having already migrated toward Internet based electronic mail or even full Internet access could provide a most inaccurate picture of the situation. Thus the attempt to cover key aspects of Internet use with an additional questionnaire. It was not possible to obtain the new addresses of all those who were surveyed in the first phase. The complement can only provide a rough overview of what was happening at the time of the second phase of our project (roughly mid-1996 to mid 1997). One should also bear in mind that this area is experiencing fast, continuing and far reaching changes. Only constant monitoring and assessments could provide a relatively viable vision of the scene. Table 26 shows the level of Internet use by the respondents.

Table 26. Level of Internet use by respondents to the Internet questionnaire (in percent)

In Uganda, 53% of those who did not have full Internet access indicated that they were planning to get one within one year. No reliable indication was obtained in Senegal as to the delay in which full Internet access might be obtained. Other studies show that a majority of respondents expect to obtain a full connection rather quickly (less than one year) while a minority seem to foresee major delays due to limitations of the infrastructure and to financial constraints.

Internet access was already available to most Zambian users and a number of Ugandan ones at the time of the first phase. The majority of users, except perhaps in Senegal were using Internet for their electronic mail in the second phase. The replies to the baseline questionnaire and to the interviews which were earlier presented may in part relate to Internet use. This also explains why the replies to the additional questionnaire on Internet use were not as numerous and detailed as hoped.

Reasons for subscribing to Internet services

The combination of fast electronic mail and access to information resources on the Web seems to be the major attraction in all case, even though the improvements in the effectiveness of electronic mail alone could be sufficient for a noteworthy minority (almost 23% of respondents in Ethiopia). The replies from Uganda give some more insights, stressing access to up-to-date information, obtaining information for research, electronic publishing (including Web pages) and exchange of documents, ease of ordering goods, equipment and supplies.

Replies from Zambia offer one example of the channels through which users were attracted to Internet services:

- 76% responded to the marketing of one ISP (ZAMNET);

- 20% had past experience abroad either during their studies or from their home countries;

- 5% had the service subscribed or recommended by donor agencies which also provided the computers.

Internet applications used

Electronic mail is used by almost every Internet subscriber. The Web is widely used in Ethiopia (91%) and Zambia (88%) and to a lesser extent in Uganda (42%). Search engines seem to be more popular in Ethiopia (67%) than in Zambia (20%). FTP is used by half of the subscribers in Ethiopia and Zambia, while Telnet is more popular in Zambia (32%) than in Ethiopia (26%); the use of Wais is minimal in both countries. Respondents in Uganda said they do not often use the latter facilities with which they may not be familiar enough. Computer based fax is used in Zambia by some 26% of the respondents.

The perceived usefulness of a particular facility is of course a major determinant of its use. Electronic mail and the Web rank first everywhere in this respect. But, one of the major factors which determines how much of the Internet facilities, especially the Web, but also literature searching or participation in Listserves discussions, are used is who pays the cost of communication. In Zambia for instance, even though the overall use of the Web in other organizations is quite high, users in the University tend to be more active.

The adequation of the facilities is another key determinant of usage. In Ethiopia 44.8% of the respondents feel that telecommunications facilities available at their organizations are adequate. Interestingly, 54.2% of those who do not have full Internet access feel that theirs are inadequate or not available. In Zambia, 24% of the respondents feel that the computer facilities in their organizations are adequate and 12% the opposite. But 28% feel that the telecommunications facilities are inadequate against 6% who are satisfied. The scores regarding the adequacy of facilities for full Internet access are even (18%).

Improvement resulting for the use of Internet

As was the case earlier, the replies are addressing communication issues more than their effect on the activities for which they are used. The replies from Ethiopia and Uganda are consistent with the comments made about electronic communications in general. They also cover roughly similar topics though in a different order of importance.

In Ethiopia the improvements listed are:

1. Ability to Search, Access and Download Current Information, Documents and Software
2. Real Time E-Mail Communication, Increased Speed & Efficiency and Decreased Cost of Communication
3. Increased contact and Exchange of News/Ideas/Data/Documents with Colleagues and Fellow Professionals Within and Outside the Country
4. Improved Teaching, Research and Publications

In Uganda the improvement are:

1. Easy communication i.e. fast and efficient
2. Keeping up-to-date with current research developments in fields of interest
3. Ability to meet deadlines for submission of papers
4. Ability to obtain free shareware e.g. anti virus software.
5. Increased confidentiality of information for single users.
6. Ability to exchange documents without re-typing them therefore less costs/time spent on editing.

Difficulties resulting from the use of the Internet

Fewer Ethiopian respondents mentioned difficulties compared to advantages. The two items referred to time spent either in surfing the Web, which is seen as addictive and in sorting out unwanted (junk) mail. The difficulties pointed to by the Ugandan respondents are somewhat closer to effects on the activities proper. Information overload appeared only fourth in the list. Excessive reliance over fast communications is said to undermine advance planning and also raise expectations for quick action, which other constraints may prevent. The high cost of electronic communications for nationals is also stressed. Another negative aspect is the need to send confirmation copies by airmail as long as the actual delivery of electronic mail in Africa is not certain.

Technical or other constraints preventing a more effective use of the Internet

Three series of factors have been mentioned, which replicate those mentioned with regard to electronic communication. One is related to funding, budget appropriations and costs, especially with Web searching which may be quite time consuming. Another one is related to various drawbacks in the infrastructure such as hardware limitations, insufficient telephone lines, power cuts and power rationing (in Uganda), delays and effectiveness of maintenance. A third one is related to human skills. As is natural the knowledge about the Internet applications and resources is still scarce and experience only beginning to accrue. Skills in using full Internet access are missing. This include the ability to produce Web pages. The situation is worsened by two facts. The documentation about the softwares and applications is not geared at solving actual problems. The training offered in particular by ISPs or equipment vendors is often reduced to a rushed session of a few hours, which is not necessarily followed by practice and can thus be useless.

Non users

A series of questions tried to elucidate the position of non users. The reasons why they do not have access, in Uganda, or do not plan to have it, in Ethiopia, are quite consistent. Cost comes first and is pointed to by all respondents in Ethiopia and 58% in Uganda. Lack of appropriate computer facilities comes second in Ethiopia before the lack of telecommunication facilities, while in Uganda respondents did not discriminate among the two . Respondents in Uganda further pointed to the lack of interest in their organizations.

The improvements which are expected from an eventual Internet access are similar to those stressed by the actual users. In first place comes the easy and fast access to a vast reservoir of up-to-date information and software. A second series of improvements deals with real time exchange of electronic mail, increased speed and efficiency of communications, reduced cost, easier transactions, broadening the scope of the resources and people who can be reached, within and outside the countries. Respondents in Uganda were further pointing to the possibility of using news groups, listserves and similar means of group interaction, on the one hand, and to the resulting improvements of business, on the other hand.

More than 40% of the Ethiopian respondents felt they cannot tell at the moment of the difficulties which will result of the use of the Internet. In both Ethiopia and Uganda information overload and waste of time are apparently a major concern. It is followed by the additional expenses which the equipment and increased level of communication will generate. In addition, possible difficulties are apparently feared in Uganda in relation to security, such as: information pirating, loss of information further to system breakdowns, over-dependency on the computer.

As one may expect the technical or other constraints which may prevent respondents from making a more effective use of the Internet do not differ from those experienced by actual users. The deficiencies of the computer and telecommunications infrastructure and their consequences are highlighted in all countries. This includes the quality and capacity of telephone lines, the congestion of traffic, performance of personal computers and modems, maintenance, power cuts, etc. Once again financial constraints are also stressed both in terms of size to cover the cost of equipment and operation, and also timely allocation in relation to the latter. The limitations of human resources are also mentioned in Ethiopia and Senegal in relation to expertise in the use of computers and the Internet, knowledge of the resources available, training of users. The lack of a wide connectivity, particularly within the country is highlighted only in Uganda.

[end of part 3]

CABECA Synthesis report Part 2 Findings DRAFT

Part 4 / 4

8. Conclusions

The African scene of electronic communications has been changing so fast that it invalidated the original design of our study in less than one year. The story is worth meditating by all those who keep stressing the long time it would take for new technologies to reach Africa. At this stage, one can merely observe, with regard to electronic mail, an opportunity effect. Users take advantage of faster, more reliable, more interactive and wider range of communications whose price is seen as far below the price of other means. They can thus better interact with more people and have timely access to a broader range of information resources. They are in a position to perform a number of transactions with partners abroad, which are much more cumbersome and costly, when not impossible with the other means of communication. Quantitative evidence of these effects is usually not available. It should be stressed that the exchanges, for the time being, are heavily concentrated on a North-South route. What raises once again the difficult question whether global integration is not paid for by local disintegration.

How really critical are electronic communications to the performance of the individuals, and the organizations in which they work, is for the time being more a matter of individual belief, even though one may hope it is all except illusion. The present user base may be far from representative of the actual professional workforce. Intra-organizational studies in which the critical tasks are performed by both users and non-users of electronic communications would be more appropriate for giving us leads into this issue. It is probably too early to observe factual evidence or even gather opinions whether the effects of electronic communications will further produce positive impacts, or negative ones. At the moment, users are mostly concerned with the most immediate practicalities. Should we be able to see impacts, we would see such things as the number of ideas obtained from electronic communications, e.g. through discussion groups and/or person-to-person contacts, which have been positively applied in the conduct of a particular business and have increased its effectiveness. What is quite different from the annual growth of the number of Web sites in the bookmarks files of the professional staff. However, during the build-up phase, the growth of connectivity, resources and use could be taken as acceptable proxies of the effect of electronic communications. Assuming that they would not simply be the result of a fashion push or other external pressures.

Donald Lamberton (1995) rightly stressed: "It appears to me that the main elements omitted from most discussions of the infrastructure are (i) information stocks and flows, (ii) human capital and (iii) organizational capital.". As a result of observations made in this an other studies, we contend that information, under any of its states (as-contents, as-product, as-thing, as-activity, as-channel, etc.) cannot have any impact, except in that it contributes, together with other factors to:

1. at least maintaining human and organizational capital, or what is now called "intellectual capital"; or
2. at best enhancing intellectual capital.

It is therefore in the changes of intellectual capital that the eventual impact of information should be sought. We furthermore strongly believe that no external or internal component in the complex system which a living intellectual capital represents can be held in itself as responsible for any transformation. It is the combined effect of all these factors which makes the impact. It is thus more important to observe how they interact among themselves and with the intellectual capital than to try and measure one or the other.

The effort and time which would be required in order to incorporate the key elements of such a system in questionnaires or interview protocols are probably beyond reach. Meanwhile, it is unlikely that investigators in any sectoral, even less national study, could have a knowledge of them up to the required level of detail, or could be funded to obtain it. Judging from our experience of more than a quarter of a century in assessing the first element, and part of the others, we tend to hypothesize that organizations in Africa may not be ready yet for external or self-administered intellectual capital audits, at least to the extent they are proceeding according to the most linear and tight schedule of those conducted in other environments. Adapted tools and procedures need to be devised and tested. One can only hope that the wide recognition at the national and international levels (e.g. UNESCO, 1996, p. 39) that research in this area is essential will be translated into actual support for appropriate programs.

Final reports of the project

Asaba, K. J. F.; Bazirake Bamuhiiga, B. Connectivity in Africa: use, benefits and constraints of electronic communication - Uganda Phase 1 (final version). Study carried out under the CABECA project of Padis (UN-ECA) as part of the IDRC sponsored research program on the Impact of information on development. Addis Ababa, UNECA/PADIS, April1988.

Asaba, K. J. F.; Bazirake Bamuhiiga, B. Connectivity in Africa: use, benefits and constraints of electronic communication - Uganda Phase 2 (final version). Study carried out under the CABECA project of Padis (UN-ECA) as part of the IDRC sponsored research program on the Impact of information on development. Addis Ababa, UNECA/PADIS, April 1988.

Chifwepa, V. Connectivity in Africa: use, benefits and constraints of electronic communication - Zambia Phase 1 (final version). Study carried out under the CABECA project of Padis (UN-ECA) as part of the IDRC sponsored research program on the Impact of information on development. Addis Ababa, UNECA/PADIS, April 1988.

Chifwepa, V. Connectivity in Africa: use, benefits and constraints of electronic communication - Zambia Phase 2 (final version). Study carried out under the CABECA project of Padis (UN-ECA) as part of the IDRC sponsored research program on the Impact of information on development. Addis Ababa, UNECA/PADIS, April 1988.

Diop, O. La connectivité en Afrique: Utilisation, avantages et contraintes des communications électroniques - Sénégal Phase 1 (version provisoire). Une étude réalisée dans le cadre du projet CABECA de Padis (UN-CEA) sous l'égide du programme de recherche Impact de l'information sur le développement financé par le CRDI Addis Ababa, UNECA/PADIS, Avril 1988.

Diop, O. La connectivité en Afrique: Utilisation, avantages et contraintes des communications électroniques - Sénégal Phase 2 (version provisoire). Une étude réalisée dans le cadre du projet CABECA de Padis (UN-CEA) sous l'égide du programme de recherche Impact de l'information sur le développement financé par le CRDI Addis Ababa, UNECA/PADIS, Avril 1988.

Menou, M.J. Connectivity in Africa: use, benefits and constraints of electronic communication -Synthesis Report - Part 1 : Methodological issues. Study carried out under the CABECA project of Padis (UN-ECA) as part of the IDRC sponsored research program on the Impact of information on development. Addis Ababa, UNECA/PADIS, May 1988.

Rorissa, A. Connectivity in Africa: use, benefits and constraints of electronic communication - Ethiopia Phase 1 and 2 (final version). Study carried out under the CABECA project of Padis (UN-ECA) as part of the IDRC sponsored research program on the Impact of information on development. Addis Ababa, UNECA/PADIS, April1988.

Rorissa, A. Connectivity in Africa: use, benefits and constraints of electronic communication - Results Obtained from a questionnaires survey of participants in the April 1995 Regional Symposium on Telematics for Development in Africa (final version). Study carried out under the CABECA project of Padis (UN-ECA) as part of the IDRC sponsored research program on the Impact of information on development. Addis Ababa, UNECA/PADIS, April1988

Menou, M.J. Connectivity in Africa: use, benefits and constraints of electronic communication -Synthesis Report - Part 1 : Methodological issues. Study carried out under the CABECA project of Padis (UN-ECA) as part of the IDRC sponsored research program on the Impact of information on development. Addis Ababa, UNECA/PADIS, May 1988.

Other references

Abels, E.G.; Liebscher, P.; Denman, D.W. (1996). Factors that influence the use of electronic networks by science and engineering faculty at small institutions. Part 1. Queries. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 47(2), 146-158.

Adam, L. (1996). Electronic networking for the research community in Ethiopia. In: National Research Council, Bridge Builders. African experiences with information and communication technology, (pp. 123-140). Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

Brown, J.M. (1994). The global computer network: Indications of its use world wide. International Information and Library Review, 26 (1), 51-56

Bruce, H. (1995). Internet and academic teaching in Australia. Education for information, 13 (3), 177-191.

Evaluation Unit. Department of Community Health, Addis Ababa University (1994). HealthNet: Satellite communications research for development. Evaluation report. Draft.

Fall, M. (1996). Networking in West Africa. In: National Research Council, Bridge Builders. African experiences with information and communication technology, (pp. 141-151). Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

Lamberton, D. (1995). A taxonomy of information. Invited keynote. Colloque international "Economie de l'information", Ecole Nationale Supérieure des sciences de l'information et des bibliothèques, Lyon-Villeurbanne, France, 18-20 mai 1995.

Musisi, C. (1996). Evolution of a homegrown network in Uganda. In: National Research Council, Bridge Builders. African experiences with information and communication technology, (pp.157-176). Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

Nyirenda, P. (1996). The UNIMA Fidonet network: Computer networking for communication in Malawi. In: National Research Council, Bridge Builders. African experiences with information and communication technology,(pp. 177-188). Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

Robinson, N. (1996). Bringing the Internet to Zambia. In: National Research Council, Bridge Builders. African experiences with information and communication technology,(pp. 191-214). Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

Sagna, O & Denis, J-P. (1996). L'Afrique, les inforoutes et la francophonie. Documentaliste - Sciences de l'information, 33, 142-148.

UNESCO (1996). Information and communication technologies in development: A UNESCO perspective. Paris, UNESCO, (CII-96-WS/6).

Appendix C Internet questionnaire

Work supported by the International Development Research Centre, Canada

and implemented under the Pan African Development Information System (PADIS) of the Economic Commission for Africa

Project team:

Mrs. Nancy Hakin, Officer in Charge, PADIS, project leader

Ms Jane Asaba, Information officer, Uganda AIDS Commission

Mr. Bernard Bazirake, Librarian, Makerere University, Uganda

Mr. Vitalicy Chifwepa, Head, Department of Library Studies, University of Zambia

Mr. Abebe Rorissa, Librarian, University of Lesotho (formerly Addis Ababa University)

Mr. Omar Diop, Consultant, Senegal

Dr. Michel J. Menou, Consultant, France, research coordinator

DESCRIPTION

Background

The study aims at exploring how to assess the impact of electronic communication in Africa and secondarily getting first insights about the impact itself. It was conducted in Ethiopia, Uganda, Zambia and Senegal in 1995-1997. Two series of surveys and interviews were carried out on the same group of respondents to the extent possible. The study was originally conceived for the use of Email through store and forward systems, but had to take into account later on the fast spread of full Internet access.

Instruments

I) Baseline Questionnaire

Was distributed by Email in the first run and part of the second one.

It was geared at use data, following as far as possible the items present in another study done earlier of HealthNet.

It was sent to all Email subscribers in a chosen reference period (January-February 1995).

II) Extension of the baseline questionnaire February 1996

Was distributed by Email in the second run.

It was designed to cope with the introduction of full Internet services between the two runs.

III) Call for testimonies February 1996

It was designed in order to possibly expand the base of qualitative data, in view of the material difficulties faced by investigators in order to complete the target number of interviews.

It was distributed by Email to individuals and discussion groups.

IV) Interviews

For each country a structured sample was designed based upon the population of Email users active in the reference period, with a view to minimize discrepancies across the 4 countries.

The target was 50 interviews (for about 100 to 250 persons in the reference population).

Interviews were conducted by a single national investigator on the respondents sites. They took note of the answers.

All respondents were supposed to have returned the baseline questionnaire. So the interview was due to focus on the difference made in the respondents professional activity by the use of Email.

In an attempt to cope with cultural specificities, the protocol was presented with an _historical_ alternative.

As national investigators have not yet finalized their reports and debriefed, one cannot say which form was more effective.

V) Questionnaire for the participants in the African regional symposium on telematics for development

The meeting assembled a number of African and external decision makers. We wanted to take the opportunity to test their views.

The questionnaire was distributed and returned at the conference.

Use of Sense-Making

The study had to find out who are the Email users, how they use Email and what for as a background to addressing its core issue which is what difference does it make.

This was the focus of the interviews which were constructed as far as possible according to the sense-making model. Impact being considered as a very deep phenomenon (change in the ability to cope) can not be better observed than through sense-making methods.

Unfortunately, resources did not allow for providing the required training and back-stopping to the national investigators.

More drastically, the phenomenon under study (Email and Internet use) seems to be too recent for people to be able to distance themselves from the immediate technicalities of usage. One may also wonder if the level of introspection and self-criticism required to envision impact is not culturally inappropriate, at least at this stage.

I) BASELINE QUESTIONNAIRE

A. USERS IDENTIFICATION

1. Full name

2. Organization

3. Billing address

4. Personal Mail address (if different from 3)

5. Street address (NB if needed for visits)

6. Personal Phone number; Fax number

7. Email address (NB useful for traffic analysis, otherwise not)

8. Are you the sole user of this Email address YES NO

9. If not, are you the system' s administrator YES NO

10. If not, Name of the system's administrator

11. How many other users have access to this Email address

B. PERSONAL DATA

1. Gender Male Female

2. Age

3. Nationality

4. If expatriate, are you a permanent resident YES NO

or a temporary resident (<5years) YES NO

5. Highest educational qualification or degree

6. Place and year of qualification/degree

7. In which foreign languages do you consider to be fluent

8. Would you rate your computer skills as (tick appropriate box)

[]Experienced []Intermediate []Beginner

9. List the professional societies you belong to

C. PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES

1. What is your professional specialization

2. What is your current title/position

3. What are currently your principal professional activities

4. How many persons are under your direct supervision

5. Whom do you report to (indicate title/position)

D. ORGANIZATION

1. What is the mission of your organization

2. What are the principal activities of your organizations

3. What is the size of your organization's staff

4. For the conduct of your organization's business, is communicating outside the country (tick appropriate box)

[]Essential []Sometimes important []Seldom required

E. COMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION FACILITIES OF THE ORGANIZATION

1. What are the major communication facilities (e.g. telephone, telex, fax, radio, etc.) available in your organization

2. What are the computer facilities available in your organization; indicate number and types of computers, operating systems, networks, etc.

3. Which electronic communication networks does your organization currently use

4. Are information facilities (e.g. library, records unit, documentation centre) at your organization (tick appropriate box)

[]Adequate []Inadequate []Not available

F. INDIVIDUAL COMMUNICATION FACILITIES

1. Do you send/receive Electronic messages through (tick appropriate box)

Regularly Occasionally Never

At the office from

- your own computer [] [] []

- a computer on your desk [] [] []

- someone else's computer [] [] []

- a computer dedicated to Email [] [] []

At home from

- your own computer [] [] []

2. If you use your own computer, please indicate the brand, type, operating system, communication software and modem speed

3. Do you usually send Electronic messages by (tick one)

[] logging in and typing yourself

[] bringing a diskette with your messages to another operator

[] bringing hard-copy of your messages for entry by another operator

[] dictating or describing your messages for entry by another operator

[] other (specify):

4. How long have you been using this electronic communication network

5. Did you use electronic communication before YES NO

If yes, how long

6. Do you currently use another electronic communication network YES NO

if yes, which one:

7. Is the cost of your electronic communications supported by (tick one)

[] yourself

[] your department (or any other part of your organization)

[] your organization

[] a project in your organization

[] other (specify):

G. USE AND BENEFITS

1. How often, on the average, do you send electronic messages (tick one)

[] less than once per month

[] 1 to 4 times per month

[] I to 5 times per week

[] once or more per day

2. How often, on the average, do you receive personal messages (other than multiple recipients' ones, e.g. bbs or conference postings)

[] less than once per month

[] 1 to 4 times per month

[] I to 5 times per week

[] once or more per day

3. How often, on the average, do you yourself log on to check for incoming messages

[] rarely or never

[] 1 to 4 times per month

[] I to 5 times per week

[] once or more per day

4. Tick the appropriate box to indicate the frequency of each type of use (either sending or receiving)

never <1/m 1-4/m 1-5/w >1/d

personal messages [] [] [] [] []

arranging meetings [] [] [] [] []

implementing regular business [] [] [] [] []

managing projects [] [] [] [] []

exchanging research ideas [] [] [] [] []

receiving technical advice [] [] [] [] []

providing technical advice [] [] [] [] []

literature searches [] [] [] [] []

exchange of documents [] [] [] [] []

computer conferences [] [] [] [] []

5. Approximately what percent pf the electronic messages yopu send are destined

____% outside Africa

____% within Africa but outside the country

____% within the country

______

100%

6. Indicate the frequency with which you send messages or pass information using each of the following channels

never <1/m 1-4/m 1-5/w >1/d

surface mail [] [] [] [] []

air mail [] [] [] [] []

telephone [] [] [] [] []

telex [] [] [] [] []

facsimile (fax) [] [] [] [] []

travel for documents delivery [] [] [] [] []

travel for meetings [] [] [] [] []

7. Cite, by order of importance, at least 3 major improvements brought in your work by the use of electronic communications (feel free to explain)

8. Cite, by order of importance, at least 3 major difficulties brought in your work by the use of electronic communications (feel free to explain)

9. Cite, by order of importance, at least 3 major constraints for making a more effective use of electronic communications (feel free to explain)

II) EXTENSION OF THE BASELINE QUESTIONNAIRE February 1996

1. Are you currently using Internet ? YES NO

If no got to item 3

2. Do you have full Internet access ? YES NO

if yes, through which service providers ?

3. If not, do you plan to obtain full Internet access in the year to come ? YES NO

If yes go to item 5

4. If not, why (tick appropriate box/s) ?

[ ] do not feel it is needed

[ ] would be interested but [ ]cost is prohibitive, [ ]lack computer facilities [ ]lack telecommunication facilities in house, [ ]other lacks - please explain

5. What type of Internet services prompts / prompted you to subscribe ?

If future user go to item 10

6. What services do you mostly use and feel useful (tick appropriate boxes)?

Electronic mail [ ] use [ ] useful [ ] not useful

Ftp [ ] use [ ] useful [ ] not useful

Telnet [ ] use [ ] useful [ ] not useful

www [ ] use [ ] useful [ ] not useful

wais [ ] use [ ] useful [ ] not useful

search engines (specify) [ ] use [ ] useful [ ] not useful

other (specify) [ ] use [ ] useful [ ] not useful

7.Cite, in order of importance, at least 3 major improvements brought to your work by the use of Internet (feel free to explain):

8. Cite, in order of importance, at least 3 major difficulties not previously experienced, brought to the implementation of your work by the use of Internet (feel free to explain):

9. Cite, in order of importance, at least 3 major technical or other constraints preventing you from making a more effective use of Internet (feel free to explain):

10.Cite, in order of importance, at least 3 major improvements which you expect to be brought to your work by the use of Internet (feel free to explain):

11. Cite, in order of importance, at least 3 major difficulties not previously experienced, which you expect to be possibly brought to the implementation of your work by the use of Internet (feel free to explain):

12. Cite, in order of importance, at least 3 major technical or other constraints which you expect may prevent you from making a more effective use of Internet (feel free to explain):

13. Do you feel that for full Internet access, the computer and telecommunication facilities available in your organization are (tick appropriate boxes; feel free to explain):

[ ] adequate [ ] inadequate [ ] not available [ ] do not know

14. Do you feel that for full Internet access, the telecommunication facilities available in your area are (tick appropriate boxes; feel free to explain):

[ ] adequate [ ] inadequate [ ] not available [ ] do not know

15. What other limitations (e.g. awareness, training, computer skills, etc.) do you consider may prevent you from making the fullest possible use of Internet ?

(To be added if questionnaire is used without the Electronic mail part)

16. Are information facilities (e.g. library, records unit, documentation centre) at your organization (tick appropriate box)

[ ] adequate [ ] inadequate [ ] not available [ ] do not know

III) CALL FOR TESTIMONIES February 1996

Para 1 to be developed by each team:

Potential role of networked communications for progress in Africa. Need to understand better what goes on in order to bargain for enhanced connectivity. Introducing the PADIS/IDRC study. Common interest in successfully completing the study.

Conclude with something like : We would be much indebted to you for sharing your experience with us. The testimonies will be treated in strict confidentiality. The results of the study will be made publicly available by PADIS and IDRC.

Para 2 -4

We are specifically interested in what communication difficulties might have been hindering the professional activities which you feel are critical for the success of your organization, how electronic communications are alleviating these difficulties, in which way and to what extent are your essential professional activities carried out more effectively with the help of electronic communications, what new burdens are you experiencing in the meantime, what technical or other obstacles prevent you to take full advantage of electronic communications.

We would also be much interested in hearing of particular success stories as a result of the use of electronic communications, or, conversely, stories of failures due to ineffective electronic communications.

We would appreciate if you would kindly provide an address and phone number where you could be contacted in case further details would be useful. We thank you once again for your cooperation.

IV) INTERVIEWS

A. ANALYTICAL OPTION

1.1 Which of your professional activities do you consider is critical for your organization to achieve its goals?

1.2 In implementing this activity, what is the major difficulty/problem you usually face?

1.3a [problem does not seem to be dependent on/related to communication] In implementing this activity, do you face any difficulty related to communications?

1.3b [problem is related to communication] What are the communication difficulties associated with this difficulty?

Then, for each of the communication difficulty mentioned

2. Before you had access to electronic communication

- What was the nature of the difficulty, what happened?

- What was the cause of the difficulty?

- What were the effects of the difficulty?

- What were the possible solutions to the difficulty?

- How could have they been implemented?

- What would have these solutions changed?

3. Now that you have access to electronic communications

- What is the nature of the difficulty, what happen?

- What is the cause of the difficulty?

- What are the effects of the difficulty?

- What are the possible solutions to the difficulty?

- How could they be implemented?

- What would these solutions change?

4. Comparing the situation before you had access to electronic communication and the current one

- What has improved?

- What has deteriorated?

- What is unchanged?

- What new problems/difficulties arose?

- Why?

- What are their consequences?

- What are their possible solutions?

- In which way is the organization performing better?

- In which way are you yourself performing better?

- Is the overall change positive?

- What is required for the change to be continued/expanded?

- Is the overall change negative?

- What is required to turn it positive?

B. HISTORICAL OPTION

1.1-1.3 as in analytical interviews

2. Before you had access to electronic communications, do you remind of a particular instance/case where you most effectively handled this difficulty turning the activity an exceptional success?

3. Before you had access to electronic communications, do you remind of a particular instance/case where the particularly ineffective handling of this difficulty resulted in a major failure in the activity?

4. Since you have access to electronic communications do you remind of a particular instance/case where you most effectively handled this difficulty turning the activity an exceptional success?

5. Since you have access to electronic communications, do you remind of a particular instance/case where the particularly ineffective handling of this difficulty resulted in a major failure in the activity?

6. Comparing the success and failure stories before and after you had access to electronic communications, what are the respective advantages and inconveniences of both situations?

NB for each 2 to 6 questions, same series of topics to be re-called as in analytical interviews

 V) QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE PARTICIPANTS IN THE AFRICAN

REGIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON TELEMATICS FOR DEVELOPMENT

UNECA-Addis Ababa, April 3-7, 1995)

- Organization's full name

- Country

- Your Title/position

- Gender

- Age

- What is currently your main professional responsibility

- Do you yourself use electronic communications (tick appropriate box)

[] Daily [] Regularly {] Occasionally [] Rarely or never

- Since when do you use electronic communication (indicate year)

- What do you consider the most positive aspects of the current communications scene in Africa? Why and what are their consequences?

- What do you consider the most serious limitations in the current communications scene in Africa?

- What are their causes (a)

- What are their consequences (a)

- What are the possible solutions and what changes would they bring?

- In what way do you consider electronic communications could alleviate these limitations?

- What limitations in the present communication scene in Africa will not be affected or which of its positive aspects could be undermined by the use of electronic communications

- What are the major obstacles for the effective use of electronic communications in Africa

- What particular communication or information functions would be enhanced through the use of electronic communications in Africa

- What are the major assets of Africa for embarking into the use of electronic communications

- What is required for electronic communication facilities in Africa to become a sustainable activity

Thank you for your kind cooperation.

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