Telematics Usage for Ghana's Development

A report prepared for the Ghana National Committee for Internet Connectivity (GNCIC)

by A. Wayo Seini, M-S. Abdulai and W.Kwadwo Asenso-Okyere

Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research,
University of Ghana, Legon

January, 1998

FOREWORD

The outstanding growth of the services sector has contributed to the respectable overall average growth of the Ghanaian economy of about 5.0 percent per annum over the period of economic reforms which began in 1983. The services sector grew at an annual average rate of 6.9 percent from 1984 to 1996 as compared to 2.7 percent for agriculture and 6.5 percent for industry. The contribution of services to GDP also continues to grow. From 1992 to 1996 it rose from 45.2 percent to 48.4 percent.

Although the services sector in Ghana is dominated by wholesale and retail trade, there has been an upsurge in telematics development lately after an expansion in telecommunications. Ghana's economic and social development cannot take off on a sustainable basis without reliable telematics services. Telematics have helped with globalisation of the world and Ghana can only benefit from this phenomenon if it gets hooked on to the world through a well developed telematics service so that information can be exchanged in a short period of time. It has been estimated by the National Communications Authority that the supply of telephone lines would increase to at least 300,000 by the year 2000 as against an estimated 100,000 in 1996. It is obvious that this development will positively impact on telematics services and help spur on growth in the primary (agriculture) and secondary (industry) sectors of the economy.

Apart from the trade liberalisation policies under the Structural Adjustment Programme, the Ghana Vision 2020 Document emphasises on exports as an avenue to expand Ghana's market. Ghana is also opening up its economy to foreigners through an enticing Investment Code. A well functioning telematics services sub-sector can help in the development of a viable export trade and attract foreign direct private investment in Ghana.

As part of its mission to conduct research that impacts positively on the socio-economic development of Ghana, the Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research was delighted to have been asked by the Ghana National Committee on Internet Connectivity to conduct a survey of actual and potential users of the Internet and other telematics services to assess needs for information, specialised applications, training, equipment and access facilities as well as resources to contribute to the development of access and applications.

Under its policy of collaborating with other institutions, ISSER put together a team including one researcher from the Computer Science Department of University of Ghana for the actual execution of the project. It has been a tremendous learning experience for the Institute and it is hoped that the Report issued from the project will contribute to further development of telematics services in particular and a high macroeconomic growth and development of Ghana in general.

W. Kwadwo Asenso-Okyere
Acting Director

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Rapid technological developments have given rise to the Information Revolution which brings in its wake a society that will be dominated by computers and telecommunications in the years leading up to the 21st century. The merger of computer and telecommunications technology is necessitated by the need of one technology to use the other in a symbiotic nature.

The buttressing of communications systems with computer technology has led to the development of a wide variety of tele-facilities which contribute immensely to the development efforts of nations. These facilities have made it possible for professionals in all manner of occupations to exchange information and ideas through networking, for example, in medicine, education, commerce, finance and banking.

This study assessed the level of telematics usage in Ghana with particular reference to the level of computer literacy and computerisation in institutions and organisations in terms of information production and consumption; information sharing networks; and the nature of telecommunications services and facilities provided to networks.

Even though 300 questionnaires were distributed to organisations of institutions, only 88 responses, representing about 30 percent of the sample, were received. The low response rate is attributable not only to apathy of the educated folk in Ghana, but to some extent low level of knowledge about telematics usage on the part of most institutions that did not respond. However, most organisations that responded provided complete data that have made it possible to analyse and provide a report that has statistical merit. This is more so, as the institutions that responded were almost evenly spread among the known categories of telematics users, namely academic/research, government commercial ventures and financial institutions.

The study showed that among the various groups of workers in institutions and organisations, computer literacy, usage and competency is highest among the middle-level personnel and lowest among the low level personnel. This is not surprising as the middle level personnel normally work closely with top management and also, provide them with their information needs.

Most organisations surveyed (82 percent) are both producers and consumers of information. A majority of institutions (28 percent) produce academic/research information; followed by financial information (19 percent). The business community is perceived to be the main information consumers by producers. Policy and decision makers as well as academic/research workers are the other main consumers of information. However, the consumption of more than three combinations of information types are more relevant to information producers as that constitutes about 25 percent of the sample. Economic and academic/research information are the most important information needs of organisations in the sample.

Both in-country and external sources of information are significant for information consumers, accounting for 68.2 percent of the sample. This is an indication of a vigorous interaction between Ghana and the outside world in the information trade.

Most organisations (56.8 percent) disseminate information physically through the print media. On the other hand a combination of fax/telephone and e-mail is the most important means of electronic transmission of information. It is used by 15.2 percent while radio, which is also an important means of electronic transmission is used by 10.5 percent of organisations.

On decision making, 91 percent of organisations surveyed said that information produced by other organisations help them achieve their objectives as they improve on their decision-making process. However, access to such information is inhibited by factors such as cost of data, level of funding, low information base etc.

Information in modern time is shared largely through a network. A network in telematics links workers, firms, institutions, regions or countries together through computers. Over 77 percent of organisations participate in networks. Participants include branch offices (33 percent), related organisations (47 percent) or both (20 percent). Networks operate within the cities, across regions and internationally. The location of participants in networks indicate that networking is not just confined to one area of Ghana, but is quite widespread. On the whole, there is a positive attitude towards information sharing as over 51 percent of organisations indicated a very supportive attitude from their workers.

Most network participants use fax/telephone medium of electronic transmission of information (21.2 percent of networking organisations). However, over 50 percent of organisations involved in networking use a combination of media to transmit information to members. By far, the combination of fax/telephone and e-mail is the most common combination accounting for 17.3 percent of organisations involved. Fax, telephone and radio are also used by 11.5 percent of organisations.

Almost one-half of the institutions that use physical means for transmitting information to network members use the print medium. However, a significant proportion of the organisations (32.7 percent) use a combination of print and diskette/tapes to transmit information physically to members of their networks. About 69.3 percent of organisations have international access to information and also send information abroad. The method of dispatch is mainly through the real-time mode of transmission (instantly), which is used by about 52 percent of organisations.

About 36 percent use the store-and-forward mode and 12 percent use both methods. Most organisations transmit information at lower speeds. Cumulatively, 33.3 percent of institutions transmit information at speeds between 9.60 kbps and 14.40 kbps. About 61 percent of organisations surveyed indicated that they preferred the speed of 64.00 kbps for information transmission, which, incidentally is the median speed. On the response (turn-around) time, 21.8 percent of organisations in networks get the information they request for instantly while another 14.5 percent can secure information within an hour, and another 27.3 percent within a day. Organisations surveyed are generally satisfied with the response time.

The survey indicates that most participants are resource poor themselves and do very little to support the network technically. The bulk of technical support for networks comes from service providers (46.9 percent) and in-house or organisations themselves (44.9 percent). On the other hand, payment for the use of networks is effected largely by participants (67 percent) and to a lesser extent by government (19.0 percent). Donor agencies, both local and international also offer assistance to about 23 percent of organisations that are networking.

Until recently, telecommunication services in Ghana has been essentially a public service, performed by the P & T. As a public utility wholly owned by government and operating under the Ministry of Transport and Communications it assumed the dual role of regulator and service provider. The competitive market environment resulting from the liberalisation policy of the government has seen the emergence of many competitors. In recognition of this, a National Communication Authority (NCA) has been established to oversee all aspects of the industry. The Authority, under the supervision of the Ministry of Communication has drafted new regulations to be put before parliament soon. This will cater for the recent and rapid developments in the sector. It is expected that the NCA will institute measures that will improve the communications infrastructure and reduce restrictions on network operators and users of telematics devices.

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ACRONYMS

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Contents

1. Introduction

1.1 Background

1.1.1 Meaning of Telematics
1.1.2 Advances in Telematics
1.1.3 Role of Telematics in Development

1.2 Objectives of the Study
1.3 Methodology
1.4 Responses
1.5 Sample Characteristic
1.6 Level of Computer Literacy
1.7 Plan of Succeeding Chapters

2. Production, dissemination and consumption of information

2.1 Information Producers/Consumers
2.2 Types of Information Produced and Consumed
2.3 Sources and Current Use of Information
2.4 Information Dissemination

3. Information sharing network

3.1 Networking
3.2 Participation in Networks
3.3 Mode and Medium of Transmission
3.4 International Information Exchange
3.5 Speed of Information Exchange
3.6 Technical and Financial Support
3.7 Donor Assistance

4. Telecommunication services and facilities

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Network Facilities
4.3 Telecommunications Service Providers

4.3.1 Types of Services
4.3.2 Operation Platform
4.3.3 Communication Protocol

4.4 Facilities for International Exchange

5. Regulatory framework and constraints to telematics

5.1 Regulatory Framework
5.2 Constraints

6. Recommendations and conclusion

6.1 Recommendations
6.2 Conclusion

7. Bibliography

8. Appendix

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List of tables

1.1 Category of Organisations/Institutions
1.2 Computer Literacy Levels of Various Groups of people
1.3 Computer Usage Levels of Various Groups of People
1.4 Attitudes of Various Groups of People to Innovations

2.1 Information Producers and Consumers
2.2 Types of Information Produced
2.3 Perceived Consumers of Information
2.4 Classification of Information Profile
2.5 Sources of Information Consumed by Organisations
2.6 Mode of Physical Information Dissemination
2.7 Mode of Electronic Transmission of Information

3.1 Participation of Organisations in Networks
3.2 Participants in Networks
3.3 Location of Participants in Networks
3.4 Description of Information Sharing Networks
3.5 Attitudes Towards Information Sharing
3.6 Medium of Electronic Transmission of Information
3.7 Means of Physical Transmission
3.8 International Access
3.9 Method of Despatching Information
3.10 Speed of Information Transmission
3.11 Response Time(Turn-Around) for Information
3.12 Technical Support for Network
3.13 Payment for the Use of Network
3.14 Annual Payment for Network Operations

4.1 Telecommunications Facilities for Network Link
4.2 Telecommunications Service Providers
4.3 Service Providers through whom Access is Made
4.4 Services offered by Service Providers
4.5 Operational Platform
4.6 Communication Protocols Used
4.7 Facilities Used in Transmitting Information

5.1 Problems Encountered by Networks
5.2 Constraints to Establishing Information Sharing Networks.

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Introduction

1.1 Background

Over the years rapid technological developments in the world have given rise to a number of revolutions; the green revolution that enabled the developed world to feed themselves and to free their citizenry from the abyss of poverty and starvation, and the industrial revolution that accelerated the pace of industrial development by replacing horsepower and manpower with machine power. The impact of these revolutions has been the transformation of society from one dominated by farmers (agricultural society) to a society dominated by machines (industrial society). As the 20th century draws to a close the industrial society has reached its zenith and we are now at the threshold of another revolution, the Information Revolution. The information revolution brings in its wake a society that will be dominated by computers and telecommunication equipment. This communication/computer era, dubbed the information society or tele-society is advancing rapidly and is seen to hold the key to effective national development. The world has been brought closer together and it is much easier for countries to learn from each other. This fact is underscored by the proliferation of innovations in the areas of telecommunication and information technology and the subsequent birth of telematics.

1.1.1 Meaning of Telematics

Telematics is the combined application of computer technology and telecommunication technology for the purpose of collecting, storing, processing and communicating information. The merger of these two technologies that had hitherto been separate and superficially diverse is necessitated by the need for one technology to use the other. Computers, in addition to their traditional function of storing and processing data/information, are now linked to distant users and to each other by telephone, radio and satellite for the exchange of information. Telecommunication systems on the other hand are now programme controlled for the general flexibility of performance and the wide range of facilities that it offers.

1.1.2 Advances in Telematics

The world has seen a wide range of communication devices ranging from trained birds, telegraph, and telex to telephone, radio and fax. Traditionally, only devices of the same kind could communicate with each other (telephone-to-telephone, fax-to-fax, radio-to radio) however revolutionary innovations in digital technology now make communication between different devices (eg. fax-to-computer, computer-to-phone) possible. This has led to the development of services such as teleprocessing, telecommuting, teleshopping, telebanking, and teleconferencing. Such telematics facilities allow one to use a computer to perform a task on another computer at a remote location using a telecommunication link to maintain contact.

Another innovation is the development of communication networks such as local area networks (e.g., to link workers together in an office), wide area networks (e.g., to link the workforce of a large organization across multiple locations and/or multiple organizations) and the Internet, which potentially could one day link all people and all organizations together in a global communication network.

It is these networks that make it possible to substitute communication for trips and face-to-face meetings through telecommuting, teleshopping, telemedicine and teleconferencing.

1.1.3 Role of Telematics in Development

It has been established that the buttressing of communication systems with computer technology, has led to the development of a wide variety of tele-facilities. The question now is how do these facilities contribute to the development of a nation?

In the health sector for instance, telemedicine provides a number of advantages for doctors and other medical staff. In the developing world, in particular, access to appropriate expertise for an accurate diagnosis and the treatment of illnesses is often difficult to obtain. While this is particularly true in rural and remote areas, it applies to many urban areas as well. Computerized networks will facilitate access to accurate and up-to-date information, enable long-distance training and consultation, and improve the administration of the health sector. Online initiatives addressing health and medicine promote networking among hospitals and health professionals worldwide and provide updates on current medical research.

In recent years, telematics has also played a significant role in the development of education in the developed world and has began making impact on education in the third world; particularly Africa, where education's share of the national budgets continues to dwindle. It enables alternative teaching methods through virtual classrooms and long-distance education, thus allowing more people to receive education.

For instance, the African Virtual University (AVU) - a project under the auspices of the World bank, is an interactive-instructional telecommunications network that uses the power of modern information technologies to increase access of educational resources throughout Sub-Saharan Africa. Through the global communication network, lectures from selected universities in Europe and North America are currently transmitted to certain selected universities in Africa. The universities of Ghana, Cape Coast and the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology inclusive, currently participate in the programme.

The global communication network also makes it possible for scholars to have access to libraries, schools, and universities worldwide. Through a FidoNet host at the Balme Library of the University of Ghana, a significant number of students and some faculty members maintain links with quite a number of North American universities and obtain information for admission into graduate programmes and for collaborative research, respectively.

Through the global network not only can one find interesting reference materials and valuable resources, but increasingly one can also download books and journals at a much cheaper cost. The network thus provides a wealth of knowledge without much effort. In addition, telematics have helped in the rapid developments of international trade, commerce, finance and banking. Global networking makes electronic commerce possible. Computer networks have also greatly improved finance and banking as ATMs and Electronic Clearing Houses facilitate quick financial transactions.

1.2 Objectives of the Study

The main objective of the study is to assess the level of telematics usage in Ghana. Specifically, the study aims at:

(i) assessing the level of computer literacy in Ghana institutions and organisations;
(ii) determining the level of information production and consumption among institutions and organisations;
(iii) determining the nature of information sharing networks and the media through which information is shared;
(iv) assessing the nature of telecommunications services and facilities provided to information sharing networks; and
v) appraising the regulatory framework for telematics usage.

1.3 Methodology

This study employed two methods for gathering the needed information: field research and desk research. The field research took place during November and December of 1997. A survey involving 300 purposively selected organizations/institutions located in Accra/Tema, Kumasi and Cape Coast was conducted using a questionnaire which had both structured and semi-structured questions. Given the bureaucratic nature of the institutions involved, the apparent unwillingness of Ghanaians to respond to survey questionnaires and the limited time available for this study, a two step process of getting response was followed. This required visiting each respondent twice.

During the first, visit the researcher gave a set of questionnaire to an identified official in the organization to complete. The respondent was informed that the questionnaire would be picked up in 48 hours time. The purpose of the second visit was to retrieve completed questionnaires but where a respondent failed to respond after the 48 hours deadline, he/she was persuaded to complete the questionnaire in the presence of the researcher.

The questionnaire covered six general areas: organization/ institution, communication, constraints and barriers, and donor assistance. The organization/institution section identifies the organization, determines the position of the respondent and determines the level of competence and level of computer usage of various groups of people in the organization. The infrastructure section is intended to determine who produces information and who consumes it?; how is the information produced?; how does the information get to the consumers?; and whether information produced by other organizations help an organization achieve its objectives. The communication section is geared toward determining whether users participate in an information sharing network, the purpose of the network if they do and the hardware and services they have access to. While there are many constraints to the spread of networks in developing nations, it is generally that the major obstacle to overcome is the lack of a large, widely distributed, demanding, and well-trained user community. The final section seeks information about donor assistance, since there have been several externally funded initiatives to get developing countries connected to the global network, the Internet.

Frequency analysis was the major tool of data analysis for the study as that was considered sufficient for a narrative that will meet the objectives of the study. Means and standard deviations were computed for a few quantitative variables.

1.4 Responses

Unwillingness to cooperate was a big problem. Contrary to expectation, the response rate was about 30 percent (as against 50% anticipated returns). Out of a sample size of 300 only 88 completed questionnaires were returned to be considered for the analysis. In addition to the time required to complete the questionnaire, most respondents were apathetic to the study. Unfortunately, this attitude was mostly exhibited by the highly educated in society; those supposed to know the role of research in national development. There is some fear among service providers of informing "competitors" about their operations. On the other hand, it was encouraging that most organizations that responded provided complete data, that could be used to throw light on the problem being investigated.

1.5 Sample Characteristics

Table 1.1 shows the affiliations of the telematics users surveyed. The results indicate that 37.5% of the respondents were in the academic/research community, 19.3% in government organizations, 18.2% in commercial ventures, and 15.9% in financial institutions. The relatively high response from the academic and research community could be attributed to the fact that the first network initiative in Ghana (the FidoNet) served an academic community. Since 1990 the FidoNet has been the main medium of communication within the academic and research institutions of Ghana.

Though the FidoNet was setup to serve its sector, it has been offering a limited commercial service in order to sustain itself. There will be a different legal framework when the proposed Ghana Academic and Research Network (GARNet) takes off fully.

Table 1.1
Category of organisations/institutions

Now, with a growing number of TCP/IP based commercial service providers, the monopoly of the FidoNet has been broken. These commercial service providers have not only made in roads to virgin sectors of the market, but have taken over some of the Fidonet subscribers because of the extra services they render (WWW, Telnet, FTP, News).

1.6 Level of Computer Literacy, Usage and Attitudes

Table 1.2 shows the computer literacy levels of various groups of people in the organizations/institutions that participated in the survey.

Table 1.2
Computer literacy levels of various groups of people

The figures indicate that middle level personnel are the most computer literate among the three groups of personnel examined; having received 21 (about 50%) of the 45 highly computer literate ratings and 42 (about 30%) of the 120 average computer literacy ratings. Receiving 18 out of the 45 high computer literacy ratings and 41 out of the 120 average ratings, top level management personnel placed second in the overall rating. This is not surprising, as the culture in Ghana (even in academic and research circles) has been for top level personnel to delegate to their subordinates the performance of most of the tasks involving the use of computers. The situation is quite different in Europe and North America where the computer is used by all levels of employees. In Scandinavia for example, people of the same occupational status will rather perform the tasks themselves using computers. Table 1.3 summarises the Level of Computer Usage of various groups of people in the sample.

Table 1.3
Computer usage levels of various groups of people

Apart from the two missing values, the results tally with that of table 1.2, hence confirming the saying that practice makes perfect. The most frequent users turned out to be the most competent (using literacy level as a measure of competence).

Attitude to innovation/initiative is a major factor that determines whether a society will progress or not. Societies that are/have been receptive to innovation or initiatives have invariably chalked a lot of achievements whilst those that have got stuck to old ideas and discouraged initiatives have not made any significant progress. Table 1.4 illustrates the attitudes of the various groups of personnel in the organizations that constituted the sample.

Table 1.4
Attitudes of various groups of people towards innovation

The results indicate a decreasing rating of the personnel with regards to very supprtive attitude to Innovation - 48.7 % for top level personnel, 37.8% for middle level personnel and 13.4% for low level personnel. On the contrary, the results show an increasing indifference attitude as you go down the hierarchy - 10.5% for the top level personnel, 26.3% for Middle level personnel and 63.2% for low level personnel. This could be given different interpretation depending on the context.

1.7 Plan of Succeeding Chapters

In chapter two, the production, dissemination and consumption of information are discussed. The discussion includes information producers and consumers as well as the types and source of information produced and consumed.

Information sharing networks, the participants in the networks and the mode and medium of transmitting information among network participants are discussed among other things in chapter three.

Chapter four discusses telecommunications services and facilities that are provided by service providers to networks. The discussion includes types of services, operation platform and communications protocol used by the network.

The penultimate chapter five discusses the regulatory framework that guides telematics usage in Ghana as well as constraints to that usage. In the last chapter (six) the summary, recommendations and conclusions are given.

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Production, dissemination and consumption of information

2.1 Information Producers/Consumers

Production and consumption of information is an essential aspect of telematics usage. In any case, the industry will not exist without the production of information. As shown in table 2.1, only 8 organisations, representing 9.1 percent of the sample are sole information producers while 7 organisations or 8 percent of the sample are sole consumers of information.

Table 2.1
Information producers and consumers

On the other hand, about 82 percent of organisations surveyed are both producers and consumers of information. This is a useful outcome as a vibrant telematics industry is highly dependent on exchange of a variety of information by institutions and organisations.

2.2 Types of Information Produced and Consumed

The types of information produced and consumed reflect on the nature and functions of the institutions surveyed. Information relating to academic and research activities feature prominently. As shown in Table 2.2, over 28 percent of organisations surveyed produced or consumed information that are necessary for the advancement of academic and research activities. This is hardly surprising as most information flow are basic necessities for the learning process and for systematic analysis and discovery of hitherto unknown information.

Next in importance is information relating to the financial sector. This type of information is produced and consumed by over 19 percent of the institutions surveyed. This is not unexpected as telematics is extremely important for the financial sector operations in a variety of ways. It greatly improves the efficiency of front line officials, particulary in banking and reduces the amount of time customers spend when transacting business at the bank. For example, cashiers can easily check customer's bank balances through a terminal and effect transactions. Also, bank office services which involve internal transactions with bank branches, and also bank to bank transactions can be done by computers as part of a network.

Economic and social information are also produced by some institutions though in both cases the institutions involved form less than 10 percent of the sample (5.7 percent and 4.5 percent respectively). A few institutions produce a combination of other types of information, the most important being academic/research and economic, accounting for 5.7 percent of the sample. The other combinations of importance is economic and social, as well as economic and financial which each account for 2.3 percent of the sample. The remaining combination of information types produced and consumed are of minor significance as they each account for only 1.1 percent of the sample.

Table 2.2
Type of information produced

Other information types produced and consumed which were not specified in the questionnaire account for 10.2 percent of the sample. They were specified by respondents and include government policy information, statistical, technical and print media information.

Table 2.3
Perceived consumers of information

* Combination of the above consumers

The perceived consumers of the information types are shown in table 2.3. The business community is the single largest consumer of most of the information generated, accounting for 17 percent of the sample. Since financial information is consumed largely by the business community, this seems to correlate with the earlier observation that significant amount of such information is produced.

Policy and decision makers are also perceived to be major consumers of information produced. They account for 12.5 percent of the sample. Academic and research workers are the third most important group of consumers of information produced, accounting for 9.1 percent of the sample. International bodies operating in Ghana are perceived to be the least consumers of information produced. Presumably they have access to information from their countries of origin and other sources and so they rely less on locally generated information.

It is significant to note, however, that three or more combinations of information types consumed are more relevant to information producers as that constitutes 25 percent of the sample. Other combinations of two information consumers appear to be less pronounced as they account for between 1.1. and 4.5 percent of the sample.

Other types of consumers who account for 10.2 percent of the sample were specified by respondents to include government, individual clients, farmers, general public, industrialists, media personnel, students and non-governmental organisations. The information profile of organisations surveyed shows that economic and academic research information are the most important accounting for 26.1 and 23.9 percent respectively. The economic and academic/research information together constitute 50 percent of the information profile of the organisations surveyed. Financial and social information are also important in their information profile, accounting for 9.1 and 4.5 percent respectively. Health and medical information form only 2.3 percent of the profile. Combinations of academic/research, economic, social and financial are also important in the information profile of institutions surveyed accounting for between 2.3 percent and 8.0 percent of the organisations surveyed.

Other types of information, which formed 3.4 percent of the information profile of the organisations, were specified to include business, development assistance, statistical and technical.

Table 2.4
Classification of information profile

2.3 Sources and Current Use of Information

The sources of information are important in policy formulation, particularly in shaping the regulatory framework for telematics usage. In-country sources call for policies that will promote domestic growth in information production and consumption, while external sources call for policies that will ensure free flow of good quality information in a less stringent regulatory environment.

Table 2.5
Source of information consumed by organisations

In table 2.5, both in-country and external sources are significant for information consumers, accounting for 68.2 percent of the sample. This finding is important and indicates that there is a vigorous interaction between Ghana and the outside world in information trade. Only 24 organisations had their information sources entirely from either in-country (21.6 percent) or external (5.7 percent). Unless the nature of the work of such organisations do not require it, they should be encouraged to interact in both markets for their information. Respondents indicated that all types of information are currently being used. These include academic, research, economic, education, management, financial, social, trade, forestry, government etc. The most important information currently used are however academic/research (17.1 percent), financial (4.5 percent) and economic (2.3 percent). The remainder are less than 2.0 percent of organisations surveyed.

2.4 Information Dissemination

Information can be physically disseminated through print, diskettes/tapes, microfiche, seminars and others. In the survey, most organisations (56.8 percent) indicated that they disseminate information physically through the print media as shown in table 2.6.

Table 2.6
Mode of physical information dissemination

Apart from that, information is disseminated physically through a combination of the other means. The most important combination is through print and diskettes which is the means of dissemination for 19.3 percent of the sample. A combination of diskettes and tapes is another means used by 6.8 percent of the sample. Other means used by 3.4 percent of the sample were specified to include workshops, seminars and lectures.

Table 2.7
Mode of electronic transmission of information

Table 2.7 shows the situation with regards to electronic transmission of information. The combination of fax/telephone and e-mail is the most important means of electronic transmission of information as 15.2 percent of organisations use this combination. Radio is next in line of importance with 10.5 percent of organisations using that medium. Fax/telephone and e-mail are each used by 4.5 percent of the organisations surveyed. It should be noted however, that 52.3 percent of the sample did not answer this question mainly because it was not applicable to them.

On decision making, about 91 percent of the organisations surveyed said that information produced by other organisations and institutions help them achieve their organisational objectives. Also, about 82 percent of the sample actually agreed that such information from other organisations actually influence their decision making process. These influences stem from increased awareness resulting from increased information on the subject matter. Such information also help in planning their activities and streamlining and organising their own institutions to be more efficient.

To improve on their decision making all organisations surveyed expressed the need for additional information in all the different types of information. Information is also required on opportunities for staff development, educational linkages and funding.

The major factors that inhibit organisations from accessing such additional information include cost of data, lack of funding, inadequacy of data (old data), lack of access to internet and low information base.

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Information sharing network

3.1 Networking

Networking in telematics is a means of linking workers, firms, institutions, regions or countries together through computers. Thus, computers, apart from their traditional function of storing and processing data and information, can be used to link distant users to exchange information through the use of telephone, radio and satellite.

A network can be local, that is a Local Area Network (LAN). This usually links together workers in different offices (usually in the same building) in the same department or firm. Another type of network is the Wide Area Network (WAN) which links the workforce of large organisations across multiple locations and or multiple organisations. A typical example is the one linking branches of the same bank (such as Standard Chartered Bank).

The most sophisticated and advanced network is the internet which has the potential to link all computers and all organisations together in a global communication network.

These networks make it possible to substitute telecommunication for long trips and face-to-face meetings and to exchange information and disseminate knowledge without physical presence. In doing so, time, labour and costs are saved.

3.2 Participation in Networks

For organisations to be abreast with the trend of information and for them to base their decisions on up to date information, participation in networks is very essential. As shown in table 3.1, over 77 percent of the organisations surveyed participate in networks.

Table 3.1
Participation of organisations in networks

The purposes given by organisations for participating in information sharing networks are many and varied. About 15 percent of organisations just want to circulate information and 3.4 percent want to cooperate with other organisations. Also, 2.3 percent of the sample want to keep abreast with and also provide information. The remainder of the purposes for participation constitute 1.1 percent each of the sample. Another 1.1. percent of the organisations gave proper management, timely access to information, updating of information, storage and exchange of information as their reasons for participating in networks.

Table 3.2
Participants in networks

Participants in the networks include branch offices, related organisations or both. Of the organisations which participate in networks, about 47 percent of them do so with other related organisations while about 33 percent have networks with their branche(s) offices as shown in table 3.2. Over 20 percent of organisations participate in networks with both their branch offices and other related organisations.

Table 3.3
Location of participants in networks

Of the organisations that participate in networks, about 34 percent indicated that participants are located within the same city as shown in table 3.3. However, 39 percent of organisations have participants in networks located across regions. Another 17 percent have participants located abroad while 6.8 percent and 3.4 percent of organisation have participants located within the same metropolis and within regions respectively. The spread in the location of participants in networks indicate that networking is not just confined to one area of Ghana, but is quite widespread.

Table 3.4
Description of information sharing networks

Most organisations involved in networking (73.1 percent) indicated that they entered into formal agreement for their information sharing networks as shown in table 3.4. About 21 percent of organisations had informal arrangements for their networks while 6.0 percent had both formal and informal network arrangements.

Table 3.5
Attitude towards information sharing

Among the organisations that are networking, about 51 percent indicated that their organisations have very supportive attitude towards information sharing while 42.3 percent felt their attitude was just welcoming as shown in table 3.5. Another 7.0 percent of the organisations were indifferent towards information sharing. Thus, on the whole there is a positive attitude towards information sharing networks in Ghana. This augurs well for the advancement of telematics usage in the country.

3.3 Mode and Medium of Transmission

Information can be transmitted to participants of the network either electronically or physically. Of the organisations and institutions that participate in networks, 26.5 percent of them transmit information electronically while 23.5 percent do it physically. The remaining 50.0 percent use both modes in transmitting information to their network participants.

The medium of electronic transmission involves the use of fax/telephone, radio, e-mail and other internet services which were specified by the organisations to include the world wide web and file transfer. As shown in table 3.6, most network participants use fax/telephone as the medium of electronic transmission of information as indicated by 21.2 percent of organisations involved in networking. The medium of e-mail ranks second as indicated by 19.2 percent of the organisations surveyed. The medium of radio accounts for only about 4.0 percent of the organisations involved in networking.

However, over 50 percent of organisations and institutions involved in networking use a combination of media to transmit information to members. By far, the combination of fax/telephone and e-mail is the most common combination accounting for 17.3 percent of organisations involved in networking. Fax/telephone and radio are used by 11.5 percent of organisations while other Internet services are used by 7.7 percent of networking organisations and institutions. The combination of e-mail and other internet services, and fax and other internet services are each used by 3.8 percent of institutions for transmitting infirmation to members. Combinations of three or more modes are used by 9.6 percent of networking institutions and organisations for transmitting information to their members.

Table 3.6
Medium of electronic transmission of information

Almost one-half (49.1 percent) of the institutions and organisations that use physical means for transmitting information to network members use the print medium as indicated in table 3.7. Diskettes/tapes and microfiche are used by 12.7 percent and 1.8 percent, respectively, by the networking organisations. However, a significant proportion of the institutions (32.7 percent) use a combination of print and diskettes/tapes to transmit information physically to members of their networks.

Table 3.7
Means of physical transmission

3.4 International Information Exchange

For a developing country, access to information abroad is very important for the local development of telematics usage since all the advances in telematics are made abroad in the developed world. It is therefore important for organisations, particularly those involved in networking, to be able to access from or send information to any part of the world without much hindrance.

Table 3.8
International access 

In table 3.8 it is shown that 69.3 percent of organisations and institutions have international access to information and also send information abroad. In other words, they are able to exchange information internationally. Even 66.7 percent of those who currently do not exchange information internationally, have plans to do so in the future.

The institutions and organisations which exchange information internationally use two methods: (i) Store-and-forward, (ii) real-time (instantly). As shown in table 3.9, about 52.0 percent (more than one-half) of the organisations that exchange information internationally use the real-time method, that is, instant despatching of information. About 36.0 percent of institutions use the sore-and-forward method which is a much slower method of despatching information than the former.

A relatively smaller proportion of institutions (12.9 percent) use both methods to despatch information.

Table 3.9
Method of despatching information 

It is pertinent to note that the high percentage of institutions that use the real-time method is an indication that most Ghanaian organisations involved in telematics usage are quite abreast with the state of the art of telematics.

3.5 Speed of Information Exchange

The rationale of networking is not only to have easy access to information but to secure information rapidly. The speed of information exchange is therefore important for successful networking.

As indicated in table 3.10, quite a significant number of organisations that exchange information (about 24.0 percent) do not even know the speed at which information is transmitted by them. For those who know, most of them transmit information at the lower speeds. Cumulatively, 33.3 percent of institutions transmit information at speeds between 9.60 kbps and 14.40 kbps.

Table 3.10
Speed of information transmission

Another 11.1 percent of organisations transmit information at between 19.20 kbps and 64.00 kbps. Only about 7.5 percent of organisations transmit information at higher speeds. Naturally, most institutions expressed the desire to transmit information at higher speeds. About 61.0 percent of organisations surveyed indicated that they preferred the speed of 64.00 kbps for information transmission which, incidentally, is the median speed.

For effective telematics usage, the response (turn-around) time for desired information should be adequate. As shown in table 3.11, only 21.8 percent of organisations in networks get the information they request for instantly while another 14.5 percent can secure information within an hour. Also, 27.3 percent of organisations can secure information within a day. Thus, about 64.0 percent of organisations and institutions can secure information they request for from instantly to within a day. This is a healthy sign for informatics usage in Ghana and policies should aim at pushing the remaining 34 percent towards a higher turn-around time.

Table 3.11
Response (turn-around) time for information 

Many participants in networks do further processing of the information they access from the network before use. In fact, about 67 percent of institutions involved in networking indicated that participants do further processing. This involves data editing, modification, consolidation, cataloguing and referencing.

3.6 Technical and Financial Support

For networking to be successful, technical and financial support should be forthcoming regularly. Support can be in-house (within the organisation), it can be through a service-provider, it can be through a consulting firm, or it can be through a resource pool of participants themselves.

Table 3.12
Technical support for network

From table 3.12, it appears most participants in networks are resource poor themselves and do very little to support the networks as only 2.0 percent of networking organisations indicated that participants support the network technically. Consulting firms support only 4.1 percent of networking organisations. The bulk of technical support for networks comes from service providers (46.9 percent) and in-house or organisations themselves (44.9 percent). Thus, an organisation whose members are not technically competent and cannot also secure the support of the service provider may not be able to involve itself and its members in networking.

Table 3.13
Source of payment for the use of network

On the other hand, payment for the use of networks is effected largely by participants and to a lesser extent by governmentas shown in table 3.13. About 67.0 percent of payment for usage is by participants while government (presumably government institutions) pays for about 19.0 percent of organisations that are networking. Donor agencies pay for about five percent of organisations involved in networks. The other means of payment which accounts for 8.7 percent of organisations networking is done largely by other sources.

Table 3.14
Annual payment for network operations

Information on the level of payment for communications facilities, service and technical support was rather scanty from the survey as few organisations responded to the relevant questions as shown in table 3.14. For communications, the eight institutions that answered were equally distributed among the value ranges (unequal) as shown in the table 3.14. For services, about 46 percent (representing 5 organisations) paid between 16 and 70 thousand cedis annually for network operations. The remaining six organisations were also, almost evenly distributed among the value ranges. Only two organisations or institutions paid for technical support. One paid between 16 and 70 thousand cedis while the other paid more than 11 million cedis annually for technical support for network operations.

3.7 Donor Assistance

Donor assistance, particularly, from the developed countries with advance informatics usage, is important for the infant industry of networking in Ghana to develop to its fullest potential. Yet, in the survey, only 20 organisations or about 23.0 percent of the sample indicated that they receive assistance in the implementation of their information networks.

The agencies which offer such assistance are both local and foreign (bilateral and multilateral). The local agencies include the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) Ghana National Petroleum Corporation (GNPC), the NCS, and the National Agricultural Research Project (NARP). The bilateral and multilateral agencies that offer assistance to networking organisations include the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the Overseas Development Administration (ODA), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), and some Non-Governmental Organisations.

The nature of assistance given by these donor agencies include credit facilities, equipment, infrastructural development, training, technical and financial assistance. In fact, one-half (10) of the organisations indicated that they receive mainly financial assistance from donor agencies while another one quarter(s) receive mainly equipment.

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Telecommunications Services and facilities

4.1 Introduction

Telecommunications is an electronic conduit used to transfer voice or data from point to point, or mass diffusion, such as broadcasting. It is often referred to as a core service since it facilitates the delivery of services produced by other sectors and also generates its own unique processing, transaction and delivery services. It also constitutes a mode of delivery or distribution channel for capital and information and is vital to services marketed by other sectors such as advertising, insurance, banking, data processing and retrieval, legal and other professional services.

Telecommunications infrastructure is composed of facilities consisting of transmission systems, that is, copper, coaxial or fibre-optic cables; satellites and multiplexors, switching systems and other interconnected equipment owned and operated by telecom organisations. The most common terminal equipment is a telephone handset, but attachments for computer connections, as modems and other equipment operated in customer premises are included. All types of services can be provided over telecommunications facilities by utilising the necessary accessories. Information, however, is the content of messages transmitted via telecommunications. This traditionally has been considered apart from the carriage function performed by network operators.

4.2 Network Facilities

A number of telecommunications facilities are vital for network links to operate efficiently. They include dedicated cable, dedicated radio, satellite dish (VSAT) and dial-up facilities.

Table 4.1
Telecommunications facilities for network link

Among the telecommunications facilities, the dedicated cable is the one that is used most by networking organisations surveyed. As shown in table 4.1, 48.3 percent of organisations involved in networks use the dedicated cable. This is followed by the dial-up facility which accounts for 30.0 percent of the networking institutions. Satellite dish and dedicated radio are used by 15.0 percent and 6.7 percent, respectively, of the organisations involved in networking.

4.3 Telecommunications Service Providers

The organisations surveyed are served by a number of telecommunications service providers. These include Ghana Telecom, Mobitel Ghana Limited, Datatel, Network Computer Systems, Celltel, Internet Ghana, Scancour, Africa Online and others.

Table 4.2
Telecommunication service providers

As shown in Table 4.2, Ghana Telecom dominate the provision of communications services to organisations and institutions, accounting for about 48.0 percent of them. The Network Computer Systems follows with about 24.0 percent share of the market. Africa Online is the other significant service provider with about 7.0 percent of the market. The remaining service providers each serve less than 3.5 percent of the organisations surveyed. For international access and transmission of information, the Balme Library at University of Ghana, CSIR, Network Computer Systems and Africa Online constitute the core group of service providers. Together they provide 78.2 percent of organisations with international access to information as shown in table 4.3. The other service providers in this respect include Ghana Telecom, SGS and SITA. Together they account for 18.2 percent of the organisations with international access to information.

Table 4.3
Service providers through whom access is made
for international transmission of information

4.3.1 Types of Services

Service providers offer a number of services which include E-mail, fax to fax, internet/phone, full internet and combinations of these services. It is significant to note from table 4.4 that 32 organisations or 36.4 percent of the sample indicated that they receive full internet services. Fax-to-fax, e-mail only and internet/phone followed in order of importance accounting for 17.1 percent, 13.6 percent and 12.5 percent, respectively, of the organisations in the sample. Combinations of services each accounted for only 1.1 percent of organisations.

Table 4.4
Services offered by service providers

4.3.2 Operation Platform

Telematics users operate from four platforms, viz, Unix, Dos/Widows, Dec/Vms, and Mac system 7x. As shown in table 4.5, Dos/Windows is the most popular as it is used by almost 30.0 percent of the organisations surveyed. It appears to be the most advanced platform and the high proportion of organisations using it implies that telematics users in Ghana are quite abreast with current technology. The unix platform also attracts 19.3 percent of organisations. The other platforms are of lesser significance as they are each used by less than 3.0 percent of the organisations (table 4.5)

Table 4.5
Operational platform

4.3.3 Communication Protocol

The communications protocol embodies the rules or procedures that are required to initiate and maintain communication. The protocol includes X.25/X.400, TCP/IP and FidoNet. Other protocols were specified by respondents in the survey to include combinations and novell's IPX/SPX. Of the three main protocols, it appears only TCP/IP is the one which is used significantly, that is, by 30.7 percent of organisations surveyed. FidoNet and X.25/X.400 are each used by only 2.3 percent of the sample. The other specified protocol, novell's IPX/SPX is rather used more by the organisations; that is by about 23.0 percent of the organisations surveyed.

Table 4.6
Communications protocol used

4.4 Facilities for International Exchange

The facilities that make international exchange of information possible include telephone/fax, telex, store-and- forward e-mail, Internet e-mail and full internet. The most used facility for international information exchange is the telephone/fax which is used by about 41.0 percent of the organisations in the sample as shown in table 4.7. Next in importance is Internet E-mail and full Internet which are each used by 8.0 percent of the sample. Store and forward e-mail accounts for 5.7 percent of the sample. The findings are hardly surprising as they relate to the investment requirements of each facility. Obviously, telephone/fax requires minimum investment as a computer is not required. The others will require investment not only in a computer and telephone but also in other software and accessories such as modems.

Table 4.7
Facilities used in transmitting information

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Regulatory framework and constraints to telematics usage

5.1 Regulatory Framework

Until recently, telecommunication services in Ghana had been essentially a public service, performed by the P&T. As a public utility owned wholly by government and operating under the then Ministry of Transport and Communication it assumed the dual role of regulator and service provider. This dual role worked well under a monopoly.

The effects of technological advances and changes in institutional structures often require an almost continuous process of adaptation of regulations. This has been the case in the communication sector of Ghana. The past couple of years has seen the introduction into the communication sector of a number of significant technological innovations. First was the introduction of cellular phones, then the Internet and finally FM radio stations and Cable Television. These new dimensions to telecommunication services have evoked a number of institutional and regulatory restructuring activities in Ghana namely:

1. The separation of Posts and Telecommunication into different Corporations.

2. Separation of Regulatory Responsibilities from Operational functions.

3. Diversification of Sources of Telecommunication Services

The rationale for the separation of Posts and telecommunication is to give telecom officials full control over their operations and end the subsidisation of postal services by telecom service.

The competitive market environment resulting from the liberalisation policy of the government leading to the split of the P&T into the Ghana Posts and the Ghana Telecom, the subsequent divestiture of the Ghana Telecom, and the emergence of numerous competitors (Mobitel, CellTel, ScanCom, Spacefon, Capital Telecom, The Second Network Operator (SNO), Western Wireless) required the creation of a level playing ground.

In recognition of this requirement, the Government of Ghana (GOG) finalised a policy reform bill in 1995 which was signed into law on December 30, 1996. The law provided for the approval of the SNO to compete directly with the Ghana Telecom in all fields of telecommunications activity. The law also established a National Communication Authority (NCA) to oversee all aspects of the implementation of the legislation and adjudication of all instances of unfair competition. In addition, the NCA is to supervise compliance with regulatory requirements by the various service providers and liaise with relevant international bodies. In line with these responsibilities, the NCA requires all service providers in the sector to apply for license (authorization for service) and frequency (authorization for frequency).

The NCA, under the supervision of the Ministry of Communication, has drafted new regulations to be put before Parliament soon. This will cater for the recent and rapid developments in the sector. It is expected that the NCA will institute measures that will improve the communication infrastructure and reduce restrictions on network operators and users of telematics devices. 5.2 Constraints About 70 pecent of organisations that are networking indicated that they encounter problems when using telematics facilities at their disposal. Drop in speed is the most worrying problem as it is encountered by about 54 percent of such organisations (Table 5.1). System hang up is another important problem as about 42 percent of organisations encounter that problem. A minor problem indicated by 2.4 percent of organisations is data loss.

Table 5.1
Problems encountered by networks

Some organisations (10 percent of the sample) also find it difficult to make information available on Internet mainly because they lack trained personnel and facilities to do so. Lack of facilities is the major problem, as indicated by about 43 percent of such organisations.

Non-availability of networking specialists was indicated by 38.1 percent of the institutions as the major constraint to participation in information sharing networks; while 9.5 percent of them indicated poor data administration as the main complaint. Another 38.1 percent felt that both lack of network specialists and database administrators were the constraints to participation in information sharing networks.

Table 5.2
Constraints to establishing information sharing networks

Table 5.2 classifies these constraints into financial, technological, organisational and others. About 40 percent of the organisations indicated that financial constraint was hindering advances in telematics usage while about 30 percent indicated technical constraints as the major reason for lack of progress in telematics usage as shown in Table 5.2. Only 11.4 percent attributed lack of progress in telematics usage to organisational constraints. Other constraints were specified to include lack of know-how, lack of facilities and the absence of data. On training, about 42 percent of the institutions indicated that existing personnel will require further training to be able to use telematics facilities. Of these, 40 percent indicated that they have local (in-house) training schemes while 42 percent have plans for personnel to be trained elsewhere.

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Recommendations and conclusion

6.1 Recommendations

There is no doubt that there is a potential upsurge in the usage of telematics in Ghana and that telematics can play an important role in the development of Ghana. However, in order that telematics may play this role more effectively, certain policy measures are suggested.

First and foremost, there is need for the creation of an Information Technology and Communication Policy for Ghana and its subsequent implementation within the framework of Ghana's Vision 2020. Currently the Vision 2020 document says very little about how information technology or telematics can be used to develop Ghana's economy. Such a policy should not only focus on the technology but should also look at contextual (social, organisational) issues. Although innovations in information and communication technologies are impressive, it must not be forgotten that technology in itself is not a determinant of change, it is only a facilitator. As with any other technology, it is the social context within which these new technologies are introduced and, more importantly, implemented, that determines their usage and impact.

On regulation, a great deal of measures have already been taken to liberalise the telecommunications sector, the argument being that privatization and competition will result in better and cheaper services to the population. One should, however, not lose sight of the fact that telecommunications have long been national industries in most countries (developed and developing), where they have been considered a public service rather than a profit-making enterprise. Since private telecommunications service providers are profit oriented, they will unlikely be interested in providing access to areas where there are few customers, for example, to remote and sparsely populated areas. For instance none of the three network operators has a link faster than 64 kbps to the hinterlands. In order to democratically link the entire population, there is the need for further deregulation to allow the Volta River Authority to commercialise the fibre optical infrastructure they are putting in place country-wide. This will greatly improve intra-country bandwidth hence make the distance learning programmes of the Ministry of Education as well as the Ghana Academic and Research Network (GARNet) a reality. It has also been observed that the three ISPs do not trade in local traffic. So for a person X on NCS wanting to communicate by for example e-mail to another person Y on Africa-Online, the message has to be sent out to London then to the USA before it comes back to person Y's computer in Accra. To avoid having to go to London to speak to someone on the streets of Accra, we recommend the setting up of an exchange point under the management of a neutral body such as the NCA so that in-country bound traffic are routed through this exchange. Such a measure will save this country the substantial amount of foreign exchange being paid to International carriers for carrying such in-country bound traffic. On tariffs, it is suggested that to sustain GARNet, government should insist on the network operators charging academic and research institutions special tariffs for dial up access to the network.

With reference to organisational infrastructure, most organisations lack the infrastructure to participate in electronic information sharing networks. To encourage information sharing among organisations, it is therefore suggested that LANs should be set up within organisations/institutions (public sector as well as private) and a WAN set up to link up organisations within the same sector. These could take the form of Intranets enabling information sharing within an organisation and Extranets for information sharing between trusted organisations. Further more a . gov. gh domain should be set up to link up government ministries and agencies.

Since lack of good information base was cited by many organisations as inhibiting the use of information from external sources, it is suggested that government should request all organisations to set up information bases and these information bases should be linked up by a central information base at the National Computing Centre. This will considerably ease the flow of information between government organisations, hence speed up the decentralisation exercise being undertaken by government as well as smoothen the operations of inter-dependent organisations such as the Hospitals, Births and Deaths Registry, and the Electoral Commission.

On the issue of cost of equipment inhibiting access by individuals and organisations to telematics services, government should come out with a policy that will encourage private sector investment in the Information Technology (IT) industry, especially in the manufacture of personal computers (PCs) and development of software/applications. Such a policy should aim at PCs that will match the pocket of an average Ghanaian and also transferring the technology to Ghana. With an average per capita income of about US$ 400, the cost of a PC and modem ( averaging about US$2,000) is clearly an astronomical amount of money to most people in Ghana. Not only will such an industry service our economy, but its market is likely to grow to cover the subregion.

Another important issue to be considered is the need for human resource development. Ghana will need to train its population not only in the manufacture of the equipment but also in the usage and maintenance, because, unless these expertise can be developed, the existing dependency on the developed world will continue. Indeed, if Ghana is to be an active participant in the global information society, technology transfer will need to focus on much more than buying products, expertise, and servicing from the North. The technical know-how itself must be obtained. The study revealed that the bulk of the technical support for the networks covered by the survey comes from service providers. This sort of scheme will not scale up when the number of networks increases. Since almost all the organisations lack the necessary technical expertise to maintain and manage the networks, this will take a great deal of time, effort, and above all commitment on behalf of government and the private sector. However, to jump-start the process it is suggested that both government and private sector should support and strengthen the operations of the Computer Science Departments of the Universities, Polytechnics, and the Network Technology Training Centre of the GNCIC.

With regards to the low literacy levels among top level management and low level personnel, we suggest the setting up of an accreditation board under the Ministry of Education to evaluate the programmes of the numerous computer training schools in the country, as the quality of their training cannot be guaranteed. A further step in this direction is the inclusion of computer literacy training in the civil service training scheme and in the programmes of the management institutions of the country. In addition, the Ministry of Education should take steps to introduce computer studies into the curricula of Junior and Senior Secondary Schools.

6.2 Conclusion

In conclusion, it should be emphasised that, regardless of the numerous overheads involved, the hard reality is that, given the growing importance of information and communication technologies (ICTs) in the global market, the developing world and indeed Ghana has no choice but to reset its priorities in favour of setting up the necessary ICT infrastructure and building an efficient human resource base to join the information highway if it is to avoid global exclusion. However, it should do so taking cognisance of its culture, otherwise it will end up adapting western culture at the expense of its culture.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Abugattas, L. 1991 "Services as an Element of Co-operation and Integration Among Developing Countries: Implications for the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations" in Trade in Services: Sectoral Issues, UN Publication (UNCTAD/ITP/26), New York.

2. Asenso-Okyere, I.K. Hagan, I. Osei and A. Wayo Seini. 1994 Services for the Economic Development of Ghana: A Report Prepared for UNCTAD under the Coordinated Action Programme of Technical Assistance on Services (CAPAS), ISSER, University of Ghana, Legon.

3. Burn, P. 1989 "Professional Services and the Uruguay Round: Lessons from the Canada - United States Free Trade Agreement" in Trade in Services : Sectoral Issues (UNCTAD/ITP/26), UN Publication.

4. Cees, Hamelink. 1995 Information and Communication Technologies and Social Development, Introductory Paper Prepared for UNRISD.

5. Gibbs, M. and Hayashi, M. 1989, "Sectoral Issues and Multilateral Framework for Trade in Services. An Overview" in Trade in Services: Sectoral Issues (UNCTAD/ITP26), New York.

6. Gibbs, M. and Mashayekhi, M. 1991, "Development in the Uruguay Round Negotiations on Trade in Service: UNCTAD/ITT/5 (Vol.II) New York, 1992.

7. Grey, R. De C. 1989 "Services Sectors and the Uruguay Round" in Trade in Services: Sectoral Issues UNCTAD/TPT/26, UN Publication, New York

8. ISSER, 1992 -1997 The State of the Economy of Ghana in 1991 - 1996,ISSER, University of Ghana, Legon.( A Series)

9. Lebale, N.S. 1992; Services in Africa: Prospects for Trade, Regional Co-operation and Development in the Post Uruguay Round Period. UNCTAD Project RAF/57/157. United Nations, New York

10. Noyelle T. 1989 "Business Services and the Uruguay Round Negotiations on Trade in Services" in Trade in Services: Sectoral Issues, UNCTAD/ITT/26 United Nations, New York. Noyelle, T. and Redfield B. 1992; Internationally Traded Labour Services in Africa; Issues for a General Agreement for Trade in Services. UNDP/UNCTAD; UN New York.

11. Pipe, G.R. 1989 "Telecommunications Services: Considerations for Developing Canters in Uruguay Round Negotiations" in Trade in Services, Sectoral Issues. UNCTAD/ITT/26. U.N. New York.

12. Press, Larry. 1997 The Role of Computer Networks in Development (Communications of the ACM, in press).

13. UNCTAD. 1994 Recommendation and Guidelines for Trade Efficiency. United Nations, International Symposium on Trade Efficiency. United Nations, New York and Geneva.

14. UNCTAD, 1988; "Services in the World Economy" in Trade and Development Report, United Nations Publication,Series No. F.88 11.D.8 New York.

15. UNCTAD/UNDP. 1991 Subsidies on Traded Services, and Possible Offsetting Measures. U.N. Publication, UNCTAD MTN/INTCB26, New York.

16. UNDP/UNCTAD, 1990; National Study on Services in Tanzania (Memio). UNCTAD/The World Bank, 1994; Liberalising International Transactions in Services. A Handbook, United Nations, New York and Geneva. UNIDO, 1986 Industrial Development Review, October.

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APPENDIX: QUESTIONNAIRE
INSTITUTE OF STATISTICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC RESEARCH
GNCIC - INFODEV PROJECT
A SURVEY OF TELEMATICS USAGE IN GHANA

 (Circle the appropriate answer where applicable)

1. ORGANIZATION

1.1 Name of organization/institution

1.2 Position of respondent

1.3 In which of the following categories does your organization/institution belong?

1. Academic/Research
2. Government
3. NGO
4. Commercial
5. Financial
6. Multi-National
7. Foreign Mission
8. Donor Agency
9. Other, specify

1.4 How will you classify the computer literacy level of the following groups of people in your organization (on the average)?

1.Top Level Management

1. High
2. Average
3. Low
4. Non-users

2. Middle Level Management

1. High
2 . Average
3. Low
4. Non-users

3. Low Level Personnel

1. High
2. Average
3. Low
4. Non-users

1.5 How will you classify the level of computer usage among the following groups of people in your organization?

1. Top Level Management

1. Powerful Users
2. Average Users
3. Low Users
4. Non-users

2. Middle Level Management

1. Powerful Users
2. Average Users
3. Low Users
4. Non-users

3. Low Level Personnel

1. Powerful Users
2. Average Users
3. Low Users
4. Non-users

1.6 What is the attitude of the following groups of people to change/innovations?

1. Top Level Management  

1. Very Good
2. Welcoming
3. Indifferent
4. Discouraging

2. Middle Level Management

1. Very Good
2. Welcoming
3. Indifferent
4. Discouraging

3. Low Level Personnel

1. Very Good
2. Welcoming
3. Indifferent
4. Discouraging

1.7 Is your organization an information producer and/or consumer?

1. Producer
2. Consumer
3. Both

2. THE INFOSTRUCTURE