Review and Appraisal of the Implementation of Agenda 21 in Africa

Second Meeting of the Committee on Sustainable Development Addis Ababa, Ethiopia 26-29 November 2001

ABBREVIATIONS

AMCEN - African Ministerial Conference on Environment
AMU - Arab Maghreb Union
CAR - Central African Republic
CBD - Convention on Biological Diversity
CSD - Committee on Sustainable Development
ECCAS - Economic Community of Central African States
ECOWAS - Economic Community of West African States
EIA - Environmental Impact Assessment
EJS - Expanded Joint Secretariat
FDI - Foreign Direct Investment
FSSDD - Food Security and Sustainable Development Division
GEF - Global Environment Facility
HIPC - Heavily Indebted Poor Countries
ICAM - Integrated Coastal Area Management
IGAD - Intergovernmental Authority for Development
IPCC - The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
NAPs - National Action Plans
NDFs - National Desertification Funds
ODA - Official Development Assistance
ODS - Ozone Depleting Substance
POPs - Convention of Persistent Organic Pollutants
RCID - Regional Cooperation and Integration Division
SRAPs - Sub-Regional Action Plans
SRDC - Sub Regional Development Centres
UNCCD - United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
UNFCCC - United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
UNGA - United Nations General Assembly
WRI - World Resources Institute
WSSD - World Summit on Sustainable Development

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The 55^th Session of the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) decided that the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) would be held in Johannesburg, South Africa in 2002. A key feature of the summit would be a ten-year review of progress achieved in the implementation of Agenda 21 and the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development.

The review of Agenda 21 in Africa has been carried out at national, sub-regional and regional levels. The review took into account achievements, constraints, challenges and opportunities and made proposals on the way forward. This report is prepared for the second meeting of the Committee on Sustainable Development, hosted by the Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) and which is scheduled to take place from 26-29 November 2001.

Conservation and Management of Resources for Sustainable Development

Ten years after Rio, the African region faces a wide range of environmental challenges. The state of the African environment and the natural resources endowments which to a large extent drives economic growth and sustainable development, has progressively continued to decline. Environmental degradation has largely been associated with the destruction of natural resources and ecosystems, including forests, water, marine and coastal resources as well as the erosion of soils and pollution of air.

Persistent poverty has contributed to accelerated degradation of natural resources as well as intensifying the process of desertification. The reduction in agricultural productivity has hampered efforts to achieve sustainable development. Some of these problems are due to inadequate policies and misplaced priorities and also to developments and changing conditions in the global scene.

In spite of these challenges, generally, progress has been made in some countries in terms of institutional development, international consensus building, participatory processes, and private sector actions as well as curbing of pollution and slowing the rate of resource degradation.

Socio-Economic and Implementation Issues

African economies have been on the decline and in some cases near collapse, both in quantitative and qualitative terms. The rate of economic growth in at least half of the region has stayed below 2 % per annum-measured in terms of GDP while the human population has grown by an average of 3% per annum.

Africa, unlike other regions of the world, continues to receive extremely low foreign private capital. Currently almost 95 % of the financial resources used in Africa are from domestic sources. Many countries in Africa remain severely indebted. During the last decade, a substantial proportion of Africa's export earnings has been used for debt repayment contributing to the inability of African countries to implement sustainable development strategies.

Globalization poses new and major challenges in Africa. Despite the great opportunities globalization offers, its benefits are unevenly distributed and yet its costs are borne by all. Increased regional integration/cooperation is essential for promotion and development of African economic markets, to support economic growth as well as strengthening Africa's negotiating abilities with other regional groupings and transnational corporations.

Trade liberalization in Africa and the pressure on many of the countries to service their foreign debts have, to a large extent, exacerbated environmental degradation in the absence of formulating and implementing appropriate regulatory policies and laws that are environmentally sensitive. Ten years after Rio, Africa remains the poorest continent. Most Africans are poor especially in rural areas of sub-Sahara Africa where, the incidence of poverty is acute and widespread with about 60 per cent of the population living below the poverty line.

The population in Africa particularly in the urban areas continue to increase markedly. This continues to place a high demand on basic services to meet the needs of the ever-growing population. Environmental pollution and urban squalor continue to characterize African Cities. Although improvements have been recorded in the coverage of safe water and adequate sanitation in the region, a lot still remains to be done. Many people in Africa still lack these basic services. Thus people in the region still continue to experience aggravating problems of ill health and food insecurity especially among the poor. Life expectancy had increased slightly in the region but this has been seriously eroded by the HIV/AIDS pandemic, which threatens the lives of millions of Africans as well as having a heavy impact on economic and political viability of many States of the region. Other diseases such as malaria and tuberculosis still continue to kill people in the region.

The region lacks the technology and financial resources to develop the full potential of its energy resources to serve key sectors such as industry, transport, information and communication technology. Armed conflicts continue to plague the region and resources that could have been utilised for socio-economic development have been diverted to finance these conflicts, thus exacerbating poverty in the region

Proposals on Priority Actions and the Way Forward

The eradication of poverty should be seen as an overarching theme for Africa in WSSD. Sustainable development strategies should be all encompassing. Their formulation and implementation should involve all social actors and should take into account socio-economic and environmental factors. Africa should invest in its human resources who drive the development process. Attaining health, education and agricultural development goals are key to the development of Africa's human resources and to enhancing social, economic, ecological and political stability.

Energy is crucial for development and Africa should accelerate its adoption of renewable energy sources. Technological and infrastructural development and increased regional integration are crucial to increasing competitiveness in the multilateral trading system. In the last decade, Africa has learnt that peace, security and stability are essential ingredients of sustainable development and should be further promoted and nurtured.

Institutional reforms and accessing financing for development at national, sub-regional, regional and international levels are key to the establishment of viable implementation mechanisms. The ECA should have a very central role in promoting sustainable development strategies and policies and programs inspired from the national and sub regional levels.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABBREVIATIONS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

I INTRODUCTION

II AGENDA 21: 10 YEARS OF IMPLEMENTATION IN AFRICA

A. Conservation and Management of Resources for Development

Land and Sustainable Agriculture
Drought and Desertification
Biodiversity and Forests
Marine and Coastal Ecosystems and their Resources
Fresh Water Resources
Atmosphere
Toxic Chemicals and Hazardous Wastes

B. Social And Economic Dimensions

Governance, Human Rights, Conflict Prevention and
Post-Conflict Peace Building
The State of Poverty
Education
Population and Health
Integrating Environment and Development in Decision Making

C. Strengthening the Role of Major Groups

D. Means of Implementation

Financial Resource Flows to Africa

Global Environment Facility Resources

The Debt Problem

Globalization

Environmentally Sound Technologies

III RIO CONVENTIONS

Ratification and Accession

The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

The Biosafety Protocol

The UN Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD)

Promoting Synergies among Rio Conventions

IV PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS AND CHALLENGES IN IMPLEMENTING AGENDA 21

V THE WAY FORWARD FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF AFRICA'S PRIORITIES

Conservation and Management of Resources for Sustainable Development

Governance, Social and Economic Issues

Role of Major Groups

Implementation

VI ROLE OF ECA AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS

I. INTRODUCTION

1. Agenda 21 is a global plan of Action that was adopted at World Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro Brazil, 1992. The goal of Agenda 21 is to ensure sustainable development through integration of environmental and development problems, and reflects a global consensus and political commitment at the highest level on development and environment cooperation. The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, Global Environmental Conventions such as Climate Change and Biodiversity and the Forest Principles were also adopted at the Conference.

2. Agenda 21 comprises 40 chapters addressing program areas in the following broad categories: social and economic, conservation and management of resources for development, role of major groups and means of implementation. The implementation of Agenda 21 is primarily the responsibility of Governments who should spearhead the preparation national strategies, plans, policies and processes, supported and supplemented by international cooperation. Agenda 21 calls for participation in the broadest sense involving non-governmental organisations, private sector and civil society at large. During it's adoption, it was recognised that implementation of Agenda 21 programmes requires considerable resources and that developing countries would require financial assistance to meet the incremental costs of meeting developmental and environmental objectives of the programme.

Agenda 21 Program Areas:

3. The 55^th Session of the General Assembly (GA) decided to convene the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) to be held in Johannesburg, South Africa in September 2002. The overall objective of the Summit is to reinvigorate at the highest political level the global commitment to sustainable development and to a North-South partnership as well as forging international solidarity to accelerate the implementation of Agenda 21.

4. The 55^th Session further decided that the review should focus on the identification of accomplishments and areas where further efforts are needed to implement Agenda 21. The review should also identify new challenges and opportunities, and should result in renewed political commitment and support for sustainable development.

5. In the Africa region, the preparatory process included the assessment and review of progress made in the implementation of Agenda 21 at national, sub-regional and regional levels. The review process took into account the major achievements, main constraints, challenges and opportunities and proposed the way forward for implementation of Africa's priorities.

6. This report has been prepared towards the second meeting of the Committee on Sustainable Development (CSD) which will take place in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia from 26 - 29 November 2001. The report is an appraisal of the Implementation of Agenda 21 in Africa taking into account the various preparatory processes and consultations that have taken place in Africa towards the WSSD. The paper also outlines ECA's role in the implementation of the Regions Sustainable Development Programmes and Policy Implications for the Organisation.

7. In spite of the difficulties experienced in the implementation of Agenda 21, mainly due to weak financial constraints and insufficient technology transfer, reviews carried out within the framework of the African Preparatory Process have indicate that some of major gains made by countries include:

• The formulation of policies and strategies for sustainable development

• Inter-agency coordination mechanism have been established/strengthened

• Civil Society including NGOs, women's groups, youth groups and the private sector are more and more being involved in the design and implementation of sustainable development strategies and action plans

• Greater awareness on sustainable development issues has been built

• The democratisation process has yielded some encouraging results and there is greater decentralisation of natural resources management

• Life expectancy and access to education especially for girls have improved

• Sub-regional integration has increased and regional integration strengthened

II AGENDA 21: 10 YEARS OF IMPLEMENTATION IN AFRICA

This review is based on assessments and consultations made at national and sub-regional levels between September and October 2001. It also takes into consideration, recommendations from the African Roundtable Meeting of Eminent Persons held in July 2001.

A Conservation and Management of Resources for Sustainable

Development

8. In Africa, socio-economic development is inextricably linked to people, resources and the environment. Thus, environmental conservation has a direct relationship with the structure and functioning of the economy. The Global Environment Outlook - GEO - 2000 provides an overview of the state of environmental resources in Africa as follows:

• An estimated 500 million hectares of land have been affected by soil degradation since 1950, including as much as 65 per cent of agricultural land;

• As a result of food insecurity, the number of undernourished people in Africa nearly doubled from 100 million in the late 1960s to nearly 200 million in 1995;

• The region lost 39 million hectares of tropical forest, during 1980s and another 10 million hectares by 1995;

• Fourteen countries are subject to water stress or water scarcity, and a further 11 will join them by 2025; and

• Africa emits only 3.5 per cent of the world's total carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and this is expected to rise to only 3.8 per cent by the year 2010.

9. The GEO-2000 also identified other global and regional environmental conditions and trends that are serious and will deteriorate unless the trends are halted and reversed:

• Coastal areas and their resources are being degraded at a growing rate;

• Urbanization continues, often with an increase in waste management, air pollution and water supply problems;

• Refugees are increasing steadily stressing local environments, with over 27 million refugees in 1995; and

• Small Island Developing States will remain particularly vulnerable to climate change.

Land and Sustainable Agriculture

10. In Africa land is a critical resource and the basis for survival. Presently, agriculture contributes 40 per cent to the region's GDP and employs more than 60 per cent of the labour. The degradation of land in the region therefore has serious environmental and socio- economic consequences and undermines the region's quest for food security. Land degradation constraints food production to 2 per cent average annual increase. As this is much lower than the average population growth rate (about 4 per cent) per capita food production has been falling in the region.

11. In the region, the key issues associated with the deterioration of land include, escalating soil erosion, declining soil fertility, salinization, soil compaction, overgrazing, deforestation, agrochemical pollution and desertification. In many countries of Africa, a combination of the inequitable distribution, poor farming methods and unfavorable land tenure and ownership systems have led to the decline in productivity from grazing lands, falling crop yields and diminishing returns from water supplied.

12. Extreme disparities in land distribution are particularly acute in the Southern African region. For example in South Africa, 70 000 commercial farmers own 87% of the farmland while 300 times that number of black peasant farmers are confined to only 13% of the land. Unfavorable land tenure and land use policies and lack of integrated planning of land and water are among the underlying causes attributed to land degradation in the sub region. In the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) sub region, land degradation was singled out as the most prevalent problem, which is common to all countries in the sub-region.

13. On the other hand in the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS) sub region, land cannot be considered a limiting factor as only an average of 20% of the land has been domesticated. In the Central African Republic (CAR), only a low 8% of the land has been domesticated. A very high percentage of land in the sub region is under forests and woodlands, except for Chad where a good part of the land is desert. However, just like in other sub regions, land degradation and soil loss threaten the livelihoods and future food security of millions of the people of ECCAS countries.

Desertification, Drought and Climatic Disasters

14. Nearly two-thirds of African land is semi-arid. The continent is most seriously affected by desertification, which threatens more than one third of Africa's land, particularly in the Sudano-Sahelian region, Southern Africa and the Mediterranean Africa. Estimation done by the Arab Centre for Arid Zone Studies indicates that 121 million hectares of land in the Maghreb sub-region are seriously affected by Desertification. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) is an important instrument for combating desertification and the mitigation of drought in the affected African countries.

15. Recurrent droughts are also a major factor in the degradation of cultivated land and rangelands in many parts of the region. Since 1970, 57% of disasters in Sub-Saharan Africa were caused by natural hazards and which have resulted in 66% of disaster related deaths. The commonest are droughts, floods, cyclones and pest infestations. (Table 5). In Southern Africa, disasters have occurred more frequently in recent years than before. In most countries in the sub region, droughts were experienced two to three times during the 1990s while they occurred seven times in Botswana. Policy responses to mitigate the impacts of drought and disasters include the preparation of drought and disaster preparedness and mitigation plans, which include early warning systems.

Biodiversity and Forests

16. The African region is well endowed with diversity and variety of species, habitats and ecosystems. The wetlands of Africa contain a rich biological diversity, including endemic and rare plant species as well as migratory birds. The region, therefore, contains rich fauna and flora, which are critical for ecosystem equilibrium, have aesthetic and commercial value, are important for agriculture and provide food and medicinal plants. Data compiled by World Resources Institute (WRI) in 1992 indicate that out of the 40 to 850 plant taxa so far enumerated, 15.8% are endemic to the ECCAS sub region, and 175 of these are classified as rare. In the ECOWAS sub region, the Niger Delta, which is the third largest delta in the world, is also reputed to house one of the richest biodiversity in the world. Sustaining Africa's rich biodiversity is important for the promotion of eco-tourism, which has proven to be a viable and sustainable form of tourism in the region. This is particularly true in the SADC and Inter-Governmental Agency for Development in Eastern Africa (IGAD) sub-regions. In recent years, however, the African region has experienced rapid and increasing rates of species and habitat destruction and loss. Policy responses in the region have been in the creation and extension of protected areas, establishment of programs and projects to assure the conservation of biological resources and enactment and enforcement of conservation laws.

17. Forests play a crucial role in the economies of many African countries; they provide timber, industrial material as well as contributing to tourism, recreation and cottage industry. Tropical forests regulate global climate through the absorption of carbon dioxide and serve as water catchment areas. Deforestation and forest degradation continue to occur in the region due to a variety of causes, including demographic pressure, poverty, production and consumption patterns, land tenure patterns and land speculation. In 1995, the percentage of land area under forests in the ECCAS region was estimated at 43.3%. The highest annual rate of deforestation for the period was recorded in Chad (0.8 %), while Sao Tome and Principe recorded zero deforestation. Similarly, in the IGAD sub region, fuel wood consumption and agricultural land expansion have been attributed to loss of forest cover. The annual change in percentage of forest cover during 1990 - 1995 period, was highest in Uganda where deforestation rate of 0.9 % was recorded. In contrast, zero deforestation rates were recorded for Eritrea. The (Arab Maghreb Union) AMU sub region is the least forested sub region of Africa followed by the ECOWAS sub region, which is moderately forested (14% of total land area). There is more intensive deforestation in West Africa compared to all other tropical countries, with highest rates recorded in Nigeria and Cote d'Ivoire. In order to reverse this trend, forest protection laws have been enacted and afforestation and re-forestation programs have been implemented but with varying degrees of success.

Marine and Coastal Ecosystems and their Resources

18. In a number of African countries, coastal and marine resources contribute markedly towards the economies of the respective countries through fishing and tourism. In the SADC region, fisheries provide millions of jobs from inland waters and coastal lands in Namibia, Tanzania and Malawi. In Mozambique, fisheries provide 40% of the country's exports. In the IGAD countries however, the average annual marine catch is very small compared to other countries in the region.

19. Recent estimates suggest that fish catches have been on the decline in some countries. Poorly planned developments along the coast of Africa continue to threaten the marine and coastal resources, the environment and economic activities, which invariably affects the health of coastal populations. The tourism industry, which is highly dependent on the quality of coastal environment and particularly in small island countries, is also being affected. Countries in the region have now recognized the need for a more coordinated and integrated management of coastal and marine resources and as such have increasingly adopted Integrated Coastal Area Management (ICAM) Plans and Programs. In addition, several sub regional initiatives are in place to take into account the transboundary nature of coastal and marine ecosystems. For example, all the AMU countries have developed a legal framework for the protection and management of marine and coastal environment. The countries in the sub region have also established an Inter-Maghrebean Commission for concerted action for the protection of coastal ecosystems.

Fresh Water Resources

20. Water is abundant on a regional scale. The region is characterised by many river basins, lakes and streams with West Africa possessing 29, Central Africa, 8, Southern Africa, 15 and Eastern Africa 20. However the spatial and temporal distribution of the resource at sub regional and regional levels is uneven. The resource is also underdeveloped and not properly managed by man. The continuing decline in the availability of usable water in the face of rising demand poses the possibility of increased disputes and conflicts both within and among African countries. Fourty-five percent of African people lack access to safe water and adequate sanitation. As a consequence, infectious diseases linked to poor environmental conditions kill one out of every five children in Africa.

21. Despite the abundance of freshwater resources in the ECCAS sub region, portable safe drinking water is available only to less than 50% of the total population (1993 - 96), except for the Democratic Republic of Congo and Gabon which have respectively 89% and 80% coverage. Sub regional initiatives to foster closer cooperation among countries for better management of water resources and to ensure equitable and fair distribution include: The SADC Protocol on shared water courses, and the Nile Basin Initiative. In the ECOWAS sub region, about five of such shared water initiatives have been established. Further the West Africa Ministerial Conference on Integrated Management of Water Resources held in 1998 charged ECOWAS with the task of coordinating the Regional Action Plan for Integrated Management of Water Resources.

Atmosphere

22. In Africa a key issue is the pollution of the atmosphere from domestic, commercial and industrial sources, which contributes to global warming. It is however noted that the region's contribution to global climate change is not significant, yet it has been predicted that Africa will suffer the most as a result of global warming. The choice of energy sources is critical to reducing greenhouse gases and it is therefore important that the adoption of renewable energy is accelerated in the region.

23. Although the depletion of the Ozone Layer is not seen as a major environmental issue for most African countries, the African region is actively taking part in implementing the Montreal Protocol on Ozone Depleting Substances. To date, 46 African countries are Parties to the Vienna Convention on Protection of the Ozone Layer and 47 countries are Parties to the Montreal Protocol.

24. The major concern by African countries at the moment is the dumping of the obsolete Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) based equipment by developed countries and the continued importation of new but still ODS based equipment from Europe and Asia. African countries have continued to benefit from the Multilateral Fund established under the Protocol to enable them meet the incremental cost of phasing out ODS.

Toxic Chemicals and Hazardous Wastes

25. While the level of ratification of the Basel Convention on the Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, by African countries has increased, the ratification of the Bamako Convention on the on ban of the import into Africa and the control of transboundary movement and management of Hazardous Wastes within Africa, by African countries has been very slow. Institutional and resource constraints and inadequate enforcement of legislation have hampered implementation of these conventions. In the IGAD sub region, peace and security problems have further hampered the implementation of these conventions. A number of African countries are also signatories to the Prior Informed Consent Convention (PIC) on certain hazardous chemicals and pesticides and to the recently concluded Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). Some countries have laws controlling the import, use and distribution of pesticides and hazardous chemicals and a few countries have enacted laws prohibiting the import, storage and transit of toxic wastes through national territory.

B. Social and Economic Dimensions

26. Although Africa has made some improvements in terms of meeting basic services for its peoples, a lot still remains to be achieved. Africa's population continues to grow at unsustainable rates, thus increasing the pressure on its natural resources and demand for social services. Africa's role in the global economy has mainly been that of a supplier of cheap labour and raw materials. Africa's natural resources have continued to be drained instead of being used for the development of manufacturing industries which activity could contribute to the development of highly skilled human resource base. Thus, Africa has remained the poorest continent despite being one of the most richly endowed regions of the world.

Governance, Human Rights Conflict Prevention and Post-Conflict Peace Building

27. Governance records of African governments have not been very impressive. In the absence of good governance citizens engage themselves in unproductive activities such as bribery and corruption resulting in the creation of fewer jobs and a corresponding decline in household incomes and welfare. Civil strife and conflict have been dominant in the political scene. Much needed resources for development in Africa have been diverted to conflict-related expenditure.

28. In spite of these shortcomings, some important strides have been made during the last decade. There has been an increase in democratisation and the establishment of sub-regional and regional integration agencies in the continent. For example, in the ECOWAS sub region, civilian governments have replaced all military regimes and authoritarian rulers. Africans have also recognised and accepted the fact that corruption is a serious impediment to achieving sustainable development and are working towards a more decentralised form of government, which helps promote participation and transparency. Market liberalisation and privatisation have been on the increase. Although due to the non-integration of social and environmental considerations, this has had a negative impact on the livelihood of ordinary Africans especially the poor and as well as exacerbating environmental degradation.

The State of Poverty

29. African governments now generally acknowledge that the overarching objective of development must centre on the reduction of poverty in the short-term and its complete eradication in the long run. In the early 1990's, about 44 per cent of the continent's population were living below a poverty line of $ 39 per person per month. The ECA data show that sub- Sahara Africa had a higher incidence of poverty with 52 per cent of the population living below poverty line of $ 37.5 per person per month, while North Africa had a much lower incidence of poverty with 22 per cent of the population living below the poverty line. The average income of the poor for the whole continent was only $ 0.83 cents per person per day. Table 2 shows poverty indicators for African countries.

30. Poverty is a cause and consequence of environmental degradation. Poverty exacerbates environmental degradation by forcing poor people to till marginal lands or over-harvest depleted fisheries in a desperate struggle to survive. Environmental degradation contributes markedly to many of today's health threats, including polluted air, dirty water, poor sanitation, and insect-transmitted diseases such as malaria. Natural disasters occur in all parts of the world. Poor people are more vulnerable to environmental changes and natural disasters such as floods, earthquakes, landslides and severe storms, resulting in loss of life and a setback to economic gain.

Education

31. The spread of literacy and basic education amongst the African people is a necessary condition for socio- economic development. There has been a tangible increase in the level of school enrolment although there is much room for improvement. Continued investment in education and training is therefore, essential. The challenge to meet the goal of education for all BY 2015 is greatest in Africa. Even though access to education has improved especially for females, the enrolment rate for primary education is 77% and under 75% for girls. In the ECOWAS sub region, while the enrolment rate for Mali remains low (31%), Ghana and Nigeria have recorded impressive rates (76% and 80% respectively). Higher education for production of skilled technicians especially in the new information-based global economy is also important. In the African region, scientific and technological capacity is weak and the level of investment in this area is low.

Population and Health

32. Africa's population continues to grow at high rates especially in urban areas. This has continued to put pressure on environmental resources and provision of social services. However, there have been some promising developments, fertility rates have generally declined and health services coverage has increased. Eighty percent of the population in the AMU sub region enjoys access to health services. In the IGAD sub-region, the increase in coverage ranged from 52.4% in 1999 in Ethiopia to 77% (1990 - 1996 average) in Kenya. Access to safe water and sanitation has generally improved in the last decade, albeit at a slow pace. Between 1985 and 1986, the percentage of population having access to sanitation facilities in the ECCAS sub region increased in all countries except for the Congo, which witnessed a drop in these facilities (from 40% to 15%), due probably to the war.

33. Infant mortality has decreased and life expectancy showed some improvements in the last decade. Infant mortality in the ECOWAS sub-region fell from 130 to 85 per thousand between 1975 and 1999. The improvement in life expectancy is most striking in the AMU sub region where it is 70 years. (Table 3). In some parts of the region however, this has been seriously eroded by the HIV/AIDS pandemic, which threatens millions of Africans as well as the social, economic and political stability of many States. In the SADC sub region, infection rates are as high as 25% such as Botswana and Zimbabwe. Other infectious diseases also continue to take their toll on African people. Malaria and tuberculosis kill 1-1.5 million people per year. Measles and water borne infections also take a huge toll on Africa's children. (Table 4).

Integrating Environmental Concerns into Key Policies, Plans and Decision Making

34. Sustainable development requires the integration of environment and development at the outset of the decision-making process, so as to align core macroeconomic strategies which include trade and environmental goals. Since UNCED some African countries have made an attempt to integrate environment, economic and social objectives into decision-making through the elaboration of new policies and strategies for sustainable development. A number of these countries have adapted the existing policies and/or the established national commissions. Sustainable development strategies have been formulated in the form of national environment plans, conservation strategies etc.

35. In recent years some governments have began initiatives towards the incorporation of environmental dimensions in the socio-economic policies. A few countries have already taken steps to merge Ministries of Environment with the Ministries of Economic Planning while others have stationed environmental experts in crucial ministries (agriculture, industry, transport, etc.) to ensure the incorporation of environmental concerns in economic policies.

36. Some countries of the region have reinforced their commitment on the implementation of Agenda 21 through enactment of laws that ensure political support to the activities being undertaken in the area of environmental protection. A few countries do actually prepare the Annual Report on the State of the Environment. Other countries have institutionalized mechanisms for the empowerment and involvement of marginalised sections of communities in the formulation and implementation of environmental policies. A number of countries in the region have enacted laws on Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). Many countries have enacted environmental code for the sustainable use of water and forests, protection of biodiversity and the management of solid wastes. Only a few countries have elaborated and enacted laws relating to resource accounting as well as undertaking sustainable development audits. Enactment of legislation on the polluter pays principle has also received some attention.

C. Strengthening The Role Of Major Groups

37. At Rio, Governments agreed to a number of objectives, policies and strategies as contained in Agenda 21. It has, however, been shown that commitment and genuine involvement of all groups of people in society is crucial for the goals to become a reality. Popular participation and the democratisation of socio-economic and environmental actions presupposes a situation where there is consultation and involvement of the people in all actions. These include women's groups, youth groups, NGOs, the private sector, academia and research institutions.

38. In some countries, ministries for women's and youth affairs have been established and women have gradually assumed positions of responsibility. However, a lot remains to be done and there is a need to reinvigorate the spirit of the Beijing Conference. As an institutional policy framework to ensure mainstreaming gender into IGAD priority programs and projects, a Women's Desk was established and a plan of action formulated towards this end. A similar mechanism was also established in the SADC sub region. In some countries, a Council of NGOs have been established as the Coordination Unit of all other NGO's actions and mandated with the rehabilitation of the environment. The capacities of local authorities have also been enhanced for the implementation of local Agenda 21 plans of action. The private sector has also been incorporated in various Agenda 21 committees.

D Means Of Implementation

Financial Resource Flows to Africa (Official Development Assistance (ODA) and Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)

39. At Rio, some developed countries reaffirmed their commitment to reach the target of 0.7 per cent of GNP for ODA by the year 2000. Only Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway and Sweden achieved the goal of 0.7 per cent of GNP. In other developing regions, the decline in ODA has been compensated by the surge in foreign private capital flows. However, Africa received only 3 per cent of foreign private capital (see table 1).

Global Environment Facility (GEF) Resources

40. At Rio, the GEF was designated as an interim funding mechanism for the UNFCCC, CBD, the Montreal Protocol and International Waters. GEF also provides funds for land degradation issues addressing desertification and deforestation. As at June 1998, the region had received $419 (22 percent) of all GEF funding for approved projects.

The Debt Problem

41. Africa's external debt has been growing since the 1980s due to dead stocks and high interest rates. By 1998, the external debt of sub- Sahara Africa had grown to $230,132 million from $60,820 million in 1980. The debt overhang impedes public investment in physical and human infrastructure and deters private and foreign investments. For example, in the ECOWAS sub region, indebtedness was estimated at $69 billion in 1996.

42. The enhanced Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative, which commenced in 1996 targeted 41 of the most highly indebted countries of the world, 32 of which were in Africa. In 1999 only Cote d'Ivoire, Mozambique and Uganda were receiving the HIPC assistance. The other countries in the pipeline at the time included Ethiopia, Mali and Mauritania. It has been suggested, however, that HIPC debt relief is primarily targeted at lowering external debt to sustainable levels with benefits accruing over time and not in the short run.

43. African countries continue to produce raw materials that are destined for foreign markets to enable the exporting countries meet their external debts. However lack of resources and access to appropriate technology have prevented African countries from adding value to these exports. Given the prices that these raw materials can fetch in the world market, enormous quantities continue to be extracted thus reaching unsustainable levels. Trade liberalization, which has been instituted by African countries, and the pressure to service external debts, have markedly exacerbated environmental degradation.

Globalization

44. There is a clear international consensus that recognizes the opportunities and challenges that globalization offers. It is now acknowledged that no individual country or organization can hope to fulfill its goals in isolation, and hence the need for greater cooperation between the north and south and south - south.

45. Although globalization provides prospects for future economic prosperity, including poverty reduction, many countries in Africa have contributed passively to it and more so on the basis of their environmental and resource endowments. Because of unfair, non-transparent and discriminatory rules, globalization has increased the capacity of developed countries to advance their interests to the detriment of the developing countries, particularly in the areas of trade, finance and technology.

46. As a result of globalization, and the integration of the world's economies, there has been a renewed interest in the regional integration of Africa. The consequences of such a move would certainly increase the continent's share of global trade that currently stands at 2 per cent of the world trade. The infrastructure in many countries of Africa's weak and therefore pose an impediment to trade: These include infrastructure in the transportation, communications and energy sectors.

Environmentally Sound Technologies

47. The low level of technology in Africa is a major constraint to the region's development. The need to introduce and to ensure access to technologies, particularly biotechnology, information and communication technologies for enhancement of sustainable development in the region can no longer be disputed.

48. The principles of sustainable development as articulated in Agenda 21 provide for the promotion of equitable sharing of the benefits of technological development. Within the region, Egypt and South Africa are probably the leaders in biotechnology with considerable scientific infrastructure and elaborate biotechnology programmes. In all countries of the region (including Egypt and South Africa) the results and opportunities of technological development in the form of improved health facilities, enhanced agricultural production, telecommunication facilities are accessible to only a small group of the population.

49. Africa needs to bridge the digital divide in order to participate in the global information economy. In 1996 the ECA developed the African Information Society Initiative as part of its efforts to help build an information and communication infrastructure. UNDP and ECA are assisting 10 sub-Saharan countries to strengthen their internet infrastructure and services with a view to accelerating socio-economic development in those countries.

III THE RIO CONVENTIONS

Additional to the means of implementation presented above, the Rio Conventions also provided opportunities for further implementation of Agenda 21 and these are discussed below:

Ratification and accession

50. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Covention on Biological Diversity (CBD) were adopted and signed by most governments during the Earth Summit in Rio. However, the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) was adopted two years later by the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee, and opened for signature in Paris (October 1994) and entered into force in 1996.

51. The aim of the UNFCCC is to regulate levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, so as to avoid the occurrence of climate change at levels that would harm economic development or that would impede food production activities. The objectives of CBD relate to the conservation of biological resources, their sustainable utilization and the equitable sharing of the benefits arising from such utilization. The objective of the UNCCD is to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought in countries experiencing serious drought and/or desertification, particularly in Africa.

52. As at September 2000, out of the 53 African countries, 51 (96 per cent) are Parties to the UNFCCC. As at July 2001, 51 (96 per cent) of African countries had ratified or acceded to the CBD. As at 11 October 2000, all African countries except one had ratified or acceded to the UNCCD.

The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change

53. Climate Change is the major sustainable development challenge of the 21^st Century. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has projected that the average temperature of the air above the Earth's surface will increase by 1.4^o to 5.8 ^oC by 2100, in the absence of policies aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Impacts of global warming include accelerated rise in sea level, increased frequency and severity of extreme weather events, changes in patterns and levels of precipitation, the drying of arid and semi-arid areas and spread of vector borne diseases. The IPCC has pointed out that the adaptive capacity in Africa is low due to lack of economic resources and technology. Africa's vulnerability is high due to heavy reliance on rain-fed agriculture, frequent droughts and floods and poverty.

54. According to the UNFCCC Secretariat, 11 Parties in the African Region had as of May 2001 submitted their national communications to the Secretariat. The main issues raised in their report, include: need for better quality data; improved information flows and scientific research; financial resources and technical expertise, improved technologies; impact assessment needs; and adaptation measures. It is important, therefore, that adaptation measures and technology transfer are carefully planned to strengthen the social capacity to adapt.

55. The Kyoto Protocol that was adopted in December 1997 sets an overall target of a 5.2% reduction in emissions of six greenhouse gases by 2008-2012, using 1990 as a base year. The ongoing negotiations include a discussion on technical and financial assistance to developing countries vulnerable either to the adverse effects of climate change or to the indirect economic impacts of mitigation.

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

56 The conservation of biological diversity is very important to the drive towards sustainable development. It has now been recognized that saving biodiversity must go hand in hand with meeting humanity's social and economic needs. The ecosystem approach is increasing being adopted in conserving biological diversity. This approach takes into account all essential processes, functions and interactions among organisms and their environment - including humans in all their cultural diversity. It is therefore important to integrate biological diversity in other sectors and policies such as natural resource planning, forestry, coastal and marine environment management and agricultural and rural development planning. The Convention can indeed contribute to all chapters of Agenda 21.

57. In 1994 the African Ministerial Conference on Environment (AMCEN) published, "The African Common Perspectives and Position on the Convention on Biological Diversity" which outlined Africa's approach to the implementation of CBD. Within the past decade, a number of African countries have undertaken various activities within the framework of CBD implementation, including the development of biodiversity strategies and action plans and the enactment of biodiversity legislation. Countries have also carried out biodiversity assessment, research and monitoring; development of economic tools and policy instruments for management of biodiversity; capacity building involving human and institutional strengthening; and public awareness campaigns.

The Biosafety Protocol

58. The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety was adopted in January 2000 in Montreal, Canada. The objective of the protocol is to contribute to ensuring an adequate level of protection in the field of safe transfer, handling and use of living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology. The Protocol was opened for signature at the 5^th Conference of Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (COP-5) and would come into force on receipt of 50 ratifications. As at July 2001, 28 African States had signed the Protocol.

The UN Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD)

59. Over 80 per cent of African countries prepared their National Action Plans (NAPs), which were presented at the third session of Conference of Parties. A number of African countries have initiated benchmarks and indicators to ensure that the short, medium and long term actions of the anti-desertification programmes are quantifiable and readily verifiable. Many African countries have established National Focal Points for the Convention and in some cases national stakeholders' forums have already been held. The NAP process has contributed to raising awareness on land degradation issues. Some African countries have developed the National Desertification Fund (NDFs) to facilitate resource mobilization for the implementation of NAPs. A few countries have developed national remote sensing systems for vegetation mapping. In spite of these achievements, much remains to be done. In the IGAD subregion, due to among other constraints the lack of funding and the availability of focused programs on implementation, the implementation of NAPs leaves much to be desired. For instance, the setting up of NDFs is yet to be realised.

60. Sub-regional Action Plans (SRAPs) which are linked to NAPs through the Multidisciplinary Scientific and Technical Consultative Committees have also been prepared. The SRAPs of SADC, IGAD, CILSS / ECOWAS, and AMU were also presented at the COP-3 of UNCCD. At the regional level priority programme areas have been identified and were also presented at the COP-3. The SADC - SRAP focuses on Capacity Building, Early Warning Systems, Information Exchange and the development of alternative sources of energy as well as socio-economic issues. A possible strategy proposed by the ECOWAS sub region to mobilise funds for SRAP implementation is the creation of a mechanism jointly funded by member States and other bodies. In order to supplement its funds, the mechanism will apply for funds under the different GEF schedules and bilateral agencies.

Promoting Synergies among Rio Conventions

61. In view of the increase in the number of international agreements in recent years, the volume of work on reporting required of governments has increased markedly. The African governments have raised their concern over the difficulties they continue to experience in meeting their convention reporting obligations. However, UNEP's initiative on coordinating the implementation of MEA's and the increased cooperation among Convention Secretariats is helping in addressing these concerns. The recognition of the synergies among Rio conventions and others is important in formulating and implementing joint programmes and projects. This is particularly important for African countries, which have been facing implementation constraints due to inadequate resources.

IV. PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS AND CHALLENGES IN IMPLEMENTING AGENDA 21

62. The challenges, which the region has continued to face in implementing Agenda 21 since Rio have been multifaceted. Some of the constraints and challenges were of global nature while others had their origins in the region, the most significant of these being insufficient financial flows and technology transfer.

Lack of the Anticipated Financial Resources

63. Despite the fact that some developed countries committed themselves to reach the target of 0.7% of GNP for ODA by the year 2000, only a few countries have achieved that goal. The ODA from OECD countries to Africa fell sharply from 0.33 % in 1992 to a mere 0.08 % in 1995. The decline in ODA has limited the ability of most countries of the region to make a transition to sustainable development.

The Debt Burden

64. The debt overhang for Africa has swollen dramatically over the past several years. The countries of the region have continued to spend a high proportion of their export earnings in servicing the external debt leaving almost no resources for funding transition to sustainable development.

Poverty

65. The Millennium Declaration considers poverty as a violation of human rights. Because poverty is widespread in Africa, it is, therefore, the most widespread violation of human rights in the region: 35 out of 49 LDCs are found in Africa.

Governance, Conflicts and Civil Unrest

66. Sustainable development thrives best in a climate where good governance exists. The latter encompasses transparency, accountability, participatory approach, decentralization as well as restructuring state bureaucracies. Over the past decade some 18 countries have engaged in internal or external conflicts. Their resources were spent largely on arms and probably on emergency relief measures for refugees and displaced persons instead of being used for social development, economic growth and environmental protection. Wars and civil conflicts also cause destruction to infrastructure and disruption to societies, which can result in unsustainable development.

Inadequate Access to International Markets

67. African countries have over the past several years been unable to access international markets for their exports because of discriminatory and protection practices in international trade relations. Africa's share of global trade is only 2 per cent. Although globalisation has resulted in the creation of bigger markets, the region has benefited least due to resource outflows and the unfavourable terms of trade.

Lack of Progress on the Agreed Transfer of Technology

68. The transfer of environmentally sound technologies to developing countries of Africa is a critical element for the implementation of Agenda 21. However, Africa did not benefit much from such transfer.

Inefficient Domestic Production

69. In view of the low level of technology, the ordinary person in Africa continues to use obsolete implements for production resulting in high production costs. The inadequate and inefficient transport infrastructure also adds to the production costs making it virtually impossible for the African goods and services to compete on the international market. The traditional African products have also continued to face low prices on the international markets and hence the need for diversification.

Inadequate Health Care Services and the HIV/AIDS Pandemic

70. The African continent is unhealthy not because it is disease-ridden but because few Africans can afford good health. Africa's health problems are, therefore, the result of poverty rather than the disease themselves. The HIV/AIDS pandemic has adversely affected not only the health sector but also other development sectors.

Increase in the Frequency of Natural Disasters

71. The number of natural disasters in sub-Sahara Africa between 1993-1997 was the highest globally. The negative impacts of natural disasters impede the achievement of sustainable development.

Expanding Digital Divide

72. In the last ten years, there has been a dramatic revolution in the information and communication technology sectors globally except in Africa. The limited human resources, the poor basic infrastructure as well as weak policies have contributed to the slow progress of the region towards the digital revolution.

Unsustainable Management and Utilization of Natural Resources

73. There has been widespread unsustainable management and utilization of natural resources in Africa, exacerbated by poverty and population pressures, which have resulted in unsustainable development.

Energy Insufficiency

74. Inadequate access to modern sources of energy such as electricity, particularly in the rural areas, has impeded social economic development. Although energy is crucial to the development process there has been little effort for balancing environmental imperatives and energy demands.

V. THE WAY FORWARD FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF AFRICA'S PRIORITIES

75. Conservation and Management of Resources for Sustainable Development

Land and sustainable agricultural production:

• Land conservation and rehabilitation;

• Implementing food self-sufficiency and food security programs;

• Improvement of rural agriculture and provision of export markets.

Management of aquatic ecosystems and their resources:

• Development and Management of freshwater resources;

• Development and Management of shared waters and basins;

• Formulation and Implementation of Integrated Coastal (and Marine) Area Management Strategies.

Implementing the Rio Conventions:

• Halting / Reversing desertification and mitigating the effects of drought.

• Mitigating the impacts of climate change.

• Preserving and Managing of biological diversity.

(d) Optimizing industrial production and preventing pollution:

• Diversification of industrial production;

• Preventing pollution;

• Managing and minimizing toxic chemicals and hazardous wastes.

76. Governance, Social and Economic Issues

• Promoting governance, regional cooperation, technology transfer and capacity building;

• Promoting Peace, democracy, human rights and sound economic management;

• Combating HIV/AIDS pandemic;

• Providing basic health care;

• Providing basic education for all;

• Managing demographic change.

77. Role of Major Groups

• Expand and strengthen national, sub regional and regional NGO networks;

• Strengthen collaboration with women and youth groups;

• Strengthen public/private sector cooperation.

78. Implementation Issues:

Mobilizing resources for sustainable development:

• Increased ODA flows;

• Cancellation of external debt;

• Enhanced foreign direct investments;

• Enhanced domestic resource flows;

• Enhanced HIPC initiative;

• Enhanced private capital flows.

Promotion of international trade, International and Regional Cooperation (Sustainable globalization):

• Access to international markets;

• Diversification of African exports;

• Understanding international trade policies;

• Trade and environment nexus;

• Promotion of private sector activities;

• Making globalization a positive force for Africa;

• Expanding regional cooperation and economic integration;

• Promoting the transfer of environmentally sound technology and biotechnology;

• Enhancing capacity building and institutional development.

Improving the development of key infrastructure

• Strengthening Information and Communication Technology;

• Developing Science and Technology;

• Transport.

Monitoring Implementation of Agenda 21:

• Development of Sustainable Development Indicators relevant to the Africa region.

VI ROLE OF THE ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR AFRICA (ECA) AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS

79. The Preamble of Agenda 21 states that the successful implementation of programs is first and foremost the responsibility of Governments. National strategies, plans, policies and processes are crucial in achieving this. International cooperation should support and supplement such national efforts. In this context, the United Nations system and implicitly its regional commissions has a key role to play.

80. In this context, the Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) has played a catalytic role in the implementation of Agenda 21. ECA through advisory services assisted African countries to set up national sustainable development committees to enhance political awareness through workshops, seminars. ECA also on a regular basis assessed the implementation of Agenda 21 in the region.

81. Resolution 44/228 of the UN General Assembly which convened the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992, emphasised that the conference had to embrace both the environmental interests of developed countries and the developmental interests of developing countries, and build on effective bridges between the two. These considerations should inspire the ten years review process in Africa.

82. It is against this background and the need to facilitate a broad consultative process that in the region, an Expanded Joint Secretariat (EJS) comprising key regional and integration sub-regional organisations was formed in January 2000 to oversee the overall preparatory process for WSSD. The members of the EJS are ECA, UNEP, OAU, ADB, UNDP, Arab Maghreb Union (AMU), Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS), Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and Southern African Development Community (SADC). ECA serves as the focal point of Secretariat.

83. At the Africa Regional Roundtable of Eminent Persons in July 2001, it was recommended that at the regional level, ECA should become a UN intergovernmental commission on sustainable development. At the sub-regional level, the existing integration agencies could take the lead in promoting sustainable development approaches.

84. Recognising the need to promote sustainable development approaches at the regional level, the ECA had carried out internal reorganisation in 1997 to ensure that this is taken into account in its policies and programmes. The Divisions of Food Security and Sustainable Development (FSSDD) and Regional Cooperation and Integration (RCID) are particularly relevant to the process.

85. The Conference of Ministers responsible for Economic and Social Development and Planning in Africa, in 1997, created among other organs the Committee on Sustainable Development (CSD) to deal with overall development issues. Among other functions, this committee is to serve as a forum for experts to provide advice to ECA in the inter-linked areas of food security, population, environment and human settlements.

Policy Implications

86. If the ECA is to assume its advocacy role in harmonising regional positions, policies and programmes, then a possible point of departure could be the possible review of the work of the CSD to take into account relevant social, economic and environmental dimensions of sustainable development. Internal institutional arrangements involving particularly the RCID and the ESPD would need to be made to ensure that these dimensions are taken on board.

87. Linkages among relevant divisions within the Commission would need to be further explored and interdivisional collaboration more actively pursued. This will ensure that programme implementation is coordinated with a view to attaining results / outputs in a more organised and efficient manner. The Sub Regional Development Centres (SRDCs) which are operationally closer to countries should also have an active role in assisting member States in formulating, implementing and monitoring sustainable development strategies. To this end, the work programmes developed at headquarters need to be more closely aligned with those developed at the level of SRDCs. This would probably call for a reorientation of the programming process and the adoption of a more integrated programming approach.

Table1: Flows of aid and private capital to African countries and the debt crisis.

Table 1 continued