Fourth Meeting of the Committee on Sustainable Development (CSD-4)
Report On The Follow-Up To The Implementation Of The Outcomes Of The World Summit On Sustainable Development
Addis Ababa
24-28 October 2005
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
1. Follow-up on the implementation of the outcomes of the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in the Africa region is a recurrent theme of the work programme of the Sustainable Development Division (SDD) of the Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), in accordance with the mandate of the Africa Committee on Sustainable Development (ACSD). The Sustainable Development Report on Africa (SDRA), which, commencing in the current biennium, will be produced on a biennial basis, will provide more detailed information on progress in the implementation of the sustainable development agenda in the region.
2. The three outcomes of the Summit were the Political Declaration, the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (JPOI) and the type II partnerships initiatives. The Political Declaration reaffirms global commitment to the objectives of sustainable development. The Plan of Implementation, contains targets and timetables to engender actions on a wide range of issues, most of which converge with and reinforce the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The partnership commitments numbered over 200 at the time of the Summit and included major initiatives by development partners. In order to better focus efforts to address the development needs of Africa, the international community identified the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) for special attention and support. The Summit therefore laid a solid foundation for achieving sustainable development.
1.2 Structure and Content
3. The JPOI translates the Political Declaration into concrete actions, which complements the partnership initiatives. This paper, therefore, focuses on progress in the implementation of the JPOI and places emphasis on time-bound targets and issues, including those that reinforce the MDGs, and NEPAD goals. The review examines major thematic areas contained in the JPOI and largely follows the structure of the ECOSOC's report to the twelfth session of the Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD-12) on overview of progress towards sustainable development. It provides an overview of progress made towards poverty eradication and socially-inclusive development in Africa, the status of the environment and natural resource base; sustainable consumption and production; means of implementation and institutional and strategic frameworks for sustainable development while highlighting progress made in the region. Constraints, challenges, opportunities and lessons learned in the course of implementation are also underlined and conclusions are presented based on the findings of the review.
1.3 Interlinkages
4. It should be noted that while the report is structured along thematic lines, all the issues addressed in the different thematic areas are interlinked. Eradicating or reducing poverty means that more resources are available to invest in sustainable development programmes- guarantees greater access to means of implementation. Diseases such as AIDS and TB can have devastating impact on the economic situation of families, threatening their capacities to feed themselves and to provide for the basic needs of children- thus, causing poverty. Children of poor families are less likely to be enrolled in school and to finish the complete cycle. Safe, reliable water supplies and adequate sanitation facilities are crucial to achieving gender equality and fighting hunger, disease and poverty. Improving the lives of slum dwellers will contribute to combating HIV/AIDS, improving environmental sustainability, reducing hunger and gender inequality.
5. Environmental degradation is inextricably and causally linked to problems of poverty, hunger, gender inequality and health. Protecting and managing the natural resource base for economic and social development and changing consumption and production patterns are fundamental requirements for poverty eradication. A stable environment ensures the availability of freshwater, food, clean air, wood, fisheries, and productive soils that protect people from floods, droughts, pest infestations, and disease. The implementation of the JPOI, MDGs and NEPAD programmes therefore calls for balanced integration of the social, economic and environmental pillars of sustainable development, within the framework of well-defined and responsive institutional and strategic frameworks.
6. This paper is prepared for consideration by the Fourth Meeting of the Committee on Sustainable Development (CSD-IV). The Meeting is invited to review the paper and provide guidance on follow-up actions to be undertaken at all levels and by all stakeholders, in order to enhance progress in implementation.
1 Poverty eradication and socially inclusive development
7. This section examines poverty and hunger; human settlements, water and sanitation; health, and education in relation to JPOI targets, the MDGs and NEPAD goals.
2.1 Poverty and Hunger
8. The JPOI states that poverty eradication is the greatest global challenge facing the world today and an indispensable requirement for sustainable development. It reaffirms commitments and targets contained in the United Nations Millennium Declaration, namely: to halve by the year 2015, the proportion of the world's people whose income is less than one dollar a day and the proportion of people who suffer from hunger. It also pronounced support for Africa to improve sustainable agricultural productivity and food security in accordance with the hunger MDG, which greatly complements the agricultural programme of NEPAD.
2.1.1 Poverty
9. Poverty is acute and widespread in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), particularly in the rural areas where about 60 percent of the population live below the poverty line. According to an ECA Report to its Conference of Ministers in May 2005, SSA in 2003 had the highest poverty rate, while North Africa and the Middle East (MENA) experienced the lowest rate. Moreover, the poverty rate decreased substantially between 1980 and 2003 for all subregions with the exception of SSA. In addition, SSA was the only subregion where the proportion of the "working poor" increased during 1980-2003. The number of poor is expected to rise from 314 million in 2001 to 366 million people by 2015 in sub-Saharan Africa. (http://www.developmentgoals.org/Sub-Saharan_Africa.htm, 01-12-04). Africa's pervasive poverty is also explained by its role in the global economy -mainly a supplier of cheap labour and raw materials.
10. Numerous poverty reduction initiatives have been undertaken by national governments with support from development partners and civil society. These initiatives have been targeted at improving the livelihoods of the poor through income generation and engaging communities in the management of natural resources. At the international level, the Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS) initiative of the World Bank (WB) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) is being implemented in all low-income countries of Africa (World Bank, 2004). Thirty-one African countries1 embarked on the PRSP process. As at 29 July 2005, 26 had completed PRSP documents, while four (Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo, Cote D'Ivoire and Lesotho) had completed Interim PRSPs (IPRSPs). Two (Burkina Faso and Uganda) had completed their PRSP II (second phase of PRSPs) documents. (http://web.worldbank.org/wbsite/external/topics/extpoverty, 3 August 2005).
11. However, PRSP processes in countries have been criticised for not ensuring adequate participation of stakeholders and for not mainstreaming key sectors and issues such as environment, women and children. An independent review commissioned by the WB in 2003 states that countries have focused more on completing documents, which give them access to resources, than on improving domestic processes. On the other hand, other quarters suggest that progress has been particularly hamstrung by the continuing financial conservatism of the IMF and World Bank, thus failing to make the radical changes needed to make development work for the poor. In view of this, the 2005 PRS Review to be conducted by the IMF and the WB is indeed timely. The review intends to draw on the experiences of countries in preparing and implementing poverty reduction strategies and of donors in supporting these efforts (World Bank /IMF, 2005). In relation to meeting the poverty MDG, North African countries and, eight others2 in SSA s are likely to meet the poverty target of the Millennium Declaration (ECA, 2005a).
2.1.2 Hunger
12. On the target of halving the number of hunger people by 2015, figures show that hunger has increased in SSA over the past decade. In absolute terms, the number of under-nourished people in SSA increased from 170.4 million in 1990-92 to 197.4 million in 1995-97 to 203.5 million in 2000-2002. During the same period, the number of hungry people in North Africa increased from 5.4, 5.7 and 6.1 million. With regard to the subregions of SSA, while Southern and Eastern Africa experienced a decline in hunger during this period, Central and West Africa experienced an increase (FAO, 2004).
13. As a percentage of total population, the proportion of hungry people in SSA remained constant at 36 percent during 1990-92 and 1995-97, and then decreased to 33 percent during the period 2000-2002. There was a general decline in the proportion of hungry people in all subregions of SSA except for Central Africa, where the figure increased. The proportion of hungry people was least in the West African subregion. During this same period, the proportion of hungry people in North Africa remained constant at four percent of the population (ibid).
14. Over the past decade, SSA has had the highest number of food emergencies. By 2010, it is estimated that 1 out of every 3 persons in sub-Saharan Africa could be food insecure, as against 1 in 8 in South Asia and 1 in 20 in East Asia (FAO 2001 in ECA 2004a). The current famine in Niger could have been prevented if the international community had heeded the call of the developing crisis in the country many months before. According to the World Food Programme (WFP), the Niger famine highlights wider West Africa hunger. Nearby Mauritania and Mali are also enduring food shortages due to drought and locusts. Civil war in Ivory Coast has resulted in hungry refugees and several coastal countries of the sub-region are still going hungry due to the after-effects of war. (http://www.alertnet.org/thenews, 03-08-05.)
15. In view of the above, the implementation of the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP), developed under the auspices of NEPAD will go a long way in alleviating the hunger crisis in the region. CAADP also responds to the JPOI target of supporting African countries in developing and implementing food security strategies by 2005. (http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr, 3 August 2005). The regional communities and national governments have identified high priority projects and early actions for the implementation of CAADP. Governments have also committed themselves to increasing national budget allocations for agriculture to 10 percent per annum over five years. Development partners and multilateral institutions have provided significant support for the advancement of the CAADP. (WL, Nkuhlu 2005). In relation to meeting hunger-related targets of the Millennium Declaration, seven African countries3 are likely to meet the target on child malnutrition and three SSA countries4 and those in North Africa are likely to meet the target relating to overall under nourishment (ECA, 2005a).
2.2 Human Settlements, Water and Sanitation
16. The JPOI reaffirms the MDG of achieving a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers by 2020, as proposed in the "Cities Without Slums" initiative, and to halve, by the year 2015, the proportion of people without access to safe drinking water. In recognition of the close link between water and sanitation, the JPOI expanded the water target to include halving, by the year 2015, the proportion of people who do not have access to basic sanitation.
2.2.1 Human Settlements
17. Africa is the fastest urbanizing region in the world. Rural population is growing at a rate of 2.5 per cent per annum, while the urban population is experiencing 5-10 per cent growth per annum (ECA / UN-Habitat, 2003). The highest levels of urbanization in the region are found in the northern and southern sub-regions where over half of the total population live in urban agglomerations. In contrast, only about a quarter of the total population in the eastern sub-region lives in urban areas. Although East Africa is among the least urbanized regions of the world, its urban population grew by 5.8 per cent annually during the 1950-2000 period. The western sub-region is also experiencing one of the highest urban population growth rates in Africa at 5.3 per cent per annum. On the other hand, some countries in the central and eastern sub-region (Gabon and Djibouti) offer the extreme situation where two urban centres account for over 80 per cent of the total population living in urban areas (ECA 2004a). Increasing numbers of the world's poor will be city dwellers. UN-HABITAT estimates that 924 million people, or 31.6 per cent of the world's urban population live in slums, where most lack access to basic services and secure tenure (UN-HABITAT, 2005). SSA follows South and East Asia in having the third largest number of slum dwellers. North Africa is grouped together with West Africa, and together, have about one-third the number of slum dwellers found in SSA (UN Millennium Project, 2005a).
18. Initiatives undertaken by African countries to meet the target of improving the quality of life of 100 million slum dwellers range from review of national housing policies (Namibia); introducing programmes on the provision of basic urban services (Nigeria) and introduction of legislation and policy on housing rights, access to land and secure tenure (Tanzania, South Africa and Namibia) (ECA /UN-Habitat, 2003). However, policies and actions are at variance. With the exception of a few countries such as South Africa, efforts made have not had much impact on housing provision, slum upgrading and poverty reduction. The NEPAD City programme is a laudable initiative, which if successfully implemented, will go a long way in easing the lives of city dwellers, including those living in slums. NEPAD aims to address urbanization and its consequences to make African cities more attractive for economic investment (UN-HABITAT, 2005).
2.2.2 Water and Sanitation
19. A key JPOI target on water resources relates to developing integrated water resources management and water efficiency plans by 2005.
20. The Africa Regional Implementation Review Report on Water and Sanitation (2004) states that the continent's water endowment is about 9% of global freshwater resources. Africa is generally endowed with abundant water resources. It has big rivers, large lakes, vast wetlands, and limited but widespread groundwater. Much of this is located in the Central African sub-region and in the island countries. Africa has 17 rivers with catchment areas greater than 100 000 km2; and it has more than 160 lakes larger than 27 km2, most of which are located around the equatorial region and sub-humid East African highlands within the Rift Valley. Furthermore, groundwater represents 15 percent of Africa's water resources with the major aquifers located in arid zones of the northern Sahara, Nubia, Sahel, Chad Basins and Kalahari (Lake and Soure, 1997 in ECA, 2001).
21. The problems of water resources in the region are further compounded by the negative impact of human activities, which threatens the quality and quantity of an already scarce, but vital resource. Water bodies are being depleted due to poor waste management, agricultural and industrial discharges and over-extraction. Industrial and agricultural pollution release chemicals, pesticides and fertilizers into water bodies, thus compromising their quality. Another water quality problem is salt-water intrusion. Overgrazing and deforestation that result in severe soil loss and sediment loading into water bodies, are problems causing serious concern.
22. The ECA, 2005a report identifies 11countries5 as likely to meet the target for rural water supplies and 6seven countries as likely to meet the urban sanitation target. In terms of access to sanitation, the countries where access to services is poor and progress toward the goal is stalled or reversing include eleven in Africa (Ethiopia, Niger, Benin, Central African Republic, Mauritania, Madagascar, Guinea, Togo, Nigeria, Sudan and Mali); Countries with better odds of meeting the goal but where challenges are still substantial include nine in Africa (Chad, Namibia, Côte d'Ivoire, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Malawi, Cameroon, South Africa, and Burundi) (UN Millennium Project, 2005b). A significant recent development in the water and sanitation sector in Africa is the operationalization of the African Water Facility (AWF). Furthermore, the European Union (EU) Commission has established the 500 million Euro EU Water Facility.
23. In response to the above challenges, African countries have undertaken many initiatives at national, sub-regional, regional and basin levels. Nearly all countries in Africa have over the years, adopted water policies, strategies and legislation. Africa adopted a regional water vision in 2000. The African Water Development Report (AWDR) being prepared under the auspices of AMCOW is in the process of being finalized. Furthermore, useful projects aimed at complementing regional and sub-regional initiatives on water have been identified under NEPAD's programme on conservation and sustainable use of coastal marine and freshwater resources. In relation to the JPOI target of developing integrated water resources management and water efficiency plans by 2005, African countries are increasingly formulating Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) policies, strategies and programmes. In West Africa, while some countries already have these in place, others have reached advanced stages in their development (ECA, 2004 b).
2.3 Health and Sustainable Development
24. The JPOI reaffirms the MDGs of reducing, by 2015, mortality rates for infants and children under 5, by two thirds, and maternal mortality rates by three quarters, of the prevailing rate in 2000. With regard to the reduction of HIV and other diseases, the JPOI target is a reaffirmation of the General Assembly resolution, and complements the MDGs of halting by 2015, and reversing the spread of HIV/AIDS and the incidence of malaria and other major diseases.
2.3.1 Maternal and Child Health
25. Some 10.8 million children are estimated to die before the age of five every year (Black, Morris, and Bryce 2003 in UN Millennium Project 2005c,). Forty-one percent of these deaths occur in SSA. While child mortality has steadily declined in the past two decades, progress on key indicators has started to slow, and in parts of SSA, child mortality is on the rise (UN Millennium Project 2005c). In SSA, the under-five mortality rate in 2002 was almost double the average for developing countries. Roughly one in six children in Africa does not reach the age of five, and 24 out of the 25 countries with the highest under-five mortality rates are in SSA (UNICEF, 2004 in ECOSOC, 2004). North African countries and three in SSA7 are likely to meet the MDG of reducing child mortality (UN Millennium Project 2005 c).
26. As regards maternal mortality SSA has dramatically higher maternal mortality ratios than any other part of the world. It also accounts for 47 percent of all maternal deaths (UN Millennium Project 2005 c). Increase in maternal deaths in Africa is mainly attributed to HIV/AIDS and Malaria. Other causes include lack of birth spacing and domestic violence. North African countries and 8four others in SSA are likely to meet the MDG of reducing maternal mortality (ECA, 2005a)
2.3.2 HIV/AIDS and other Infectious Diseases
27. Sub-Saharan Africa remains, by far, the worst affected by HIV/AIDs, with 25.4 million (23.4 million-28.4 million) people living with HIV at the end of 2004, compared to 24.4 million (22.5 million-27.3 million) in 2002. Just under two thirds (64%) of all people living with HIV are in SSA, as are more than three quarters (76%) of all women living with HIV. The UNAIDS/WHO report states that epidemics in sub-Saharan Africa appear to be stabilizing generally, with HIV prevalence at around 7.4% for the entire region. However, there are important hidden aspects. First, this means more or less equal numbers of people are being newly infected with HIV and are dying of AIDS. Second, the epidemic shows diverse manifestations- between rural and urban areas, between regions and between accuracy in data collection. The AIDS epidemic is affecting women and girls in increasing numbers. Women and girls make up almost 57% of all people infected with HIV in sub-Saharan Africa, where a striking 76% of young people (aged 15-24 years) living with HIV are female.
28. Concerns that HIV would continue to strengthen its presence in the Middle East and North Africa are borne out by the latest estimates which show that 92 000 (34 000-350 000) people became infected with HIV in 2004. That brings to 540 000 (230 000-1.5 million) the total number of people living with the virus in this region. AIDS killed an estimated 28 000 (12 000-72 000) people in 2004 (UNAIDS/WHO, 2005). Senegal and Uganda have demonstrated that concerted efforts can reduce the spread of the epidemic. According to the ECA, 2005a report, North African countries and three in SSA (Botswana, Zimbabwe and Uganda), are likely to meet the HIV/AIDS MDG target.
29. More than 90 percent of the world's malaria burden is in Africa. Malaria takes its greatest toll on young children and pregnant women. At least 20 percent of all childhood deaths in SSA can be attributed to the disease. Pregnant women are at great risk of malaria infections, with complications that affect the survival and development of their newborns (UN Millennium Project 2005d). However, progress has been registered in some countries. North African countries and eight SSA countries9 are likely to meet the MDG target on malaria. In many African countries, the number of TB cases has increased fourfolds in the past decade, mainly as a result of the HIV epidemic. South Africa and Zimbabwe have a rate of 60 percent or more. In all, it is estimated that some 11 million adults are co-infected with both TB and HIV-2 million in South Africa alone (UN Millennium, Project, 2005e). TB treatment-DOTS-has proven remarkably effective. However, at present, up to 70 percent of Africans with HIV lack access to functioning DOTS programmes. This aside, the ECA, 2005 report states that North African countries and seven SSA countries10 are likely to meet the MDG target on TB.
30. The NEPAD health programme offers a comprehensive, integrated approach to addressing disease. It also seeks to address poverty, marginalization and displacement (http://www.nepad.org/2005/files/actionplans.php, 4 August 2005). Countries have started to implement the NEPAD Health Strategy (Nkuhlu, WL, 2005).
2.4 Education for Sustainable Development
31. The JPOI reaffirms the MDG of ensuring that, by 2015, all children will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling and that girls and boys will have equal access to all levels of education relevant to national needs. It also reaffirms the "Dakar Framework for Action on Education for All" of eliminating gender disparity in primary and secondary education by 2005. As part of its Human Resources Development Initiative, NEPAD pledges among others, to work with development partners in meeting the MDG of universal primary education.
32. Massive educational deprivation continues to be concentrated in SSA, the Arab States and South and West Asia. Thirty-five countries are far from meeting the goals, with EDI11values below 0.80. 12Twenty-two of these countries are in sub-Saharan Africa (UNESCO, 2005).
33. With regard to universal primary education, the UNESCO Education for All - Global Monitoring Report, 2005, notes striking regional patterns emerge. The greatest concentration of educational deprivation (and poverty in general) is found in Africa and South Asia. SSA and South and West Asia together account for almost three quarters of unenrolled children. In sub-Saharan Africa, only a handful of small countries both reach GERs13 of 100% or more and have NERs14 above 90%. Some larger countries combine GERs below 100% with NERs below 70% or even below 50%. The only other countries reporting NERs below 70% are a few Arab States and Pakistan. Just six countries, all in Africa, have primary education NERs below 50%. The survival rate to grade 5 (the proportion of children enrolled in grade 1 who eventually reach grade 5) varies considerably and is especially low in SSA. The survival rate is below 75 percent in 30 countries and below 66 percent in half of the SSA countries for which data are available. Survival rates tend to be higher for girls than for boys, in all regions. (UNESCO, 2005). The ECA, 2005 report states that 14 African countries (Algeria, Botswana, Cape Verde, Egypt, Gabon, Mauritius, Namibia, Rwanda, Seychelles, Sao Tome and Principe, South Africa, Togo, Tunisia and Zimbabwe are likely to achieve the universal primary education target (both enrolment and completion rate).
34. Gender disparity in enrolment is characteristic of many of the countries with low overall enrolment. Although many countries around the world have made significant progress towards gender parity at primary and secondary levels over the past decade, large gaps remain, particularly in the Arab States, SSA and South and West Asia. All but three of the countries with a GPI15 below 0.90 are in SSA (notably West Africa), the Arab States, and South and West Asia. However, progress towards gender parity was notable since 1990 and the trend has continued in 1998-2001. Thus, quick progress in gender parity can be achieved even in poor countries with low enrolment ratios (UNESCO, 2005). Progress made by African countries in this area indicates that Botswana, Lesotho, Mauritius, Namibia, Rwanda, Swaziland and Zimbabwe are likely to meet the target of achieving gender equality in primary level education. In relation to gender equality in secondary level education, seven countries, (Algeria, Botswana, Lesotho, Libya, Namibia, Rwanda and Tunisia) are likely to meet the target. At a regional level, a detailed Action Plan is being formulated under the auspices of NEPAD to enable African countries achieve the MDG of universal primary education by 2015 and the promotion of Centres of Excellence. Furthermore, NEPAD is supporting the development of distance education in partnership with key institutions of higher learning in Africa.
3 Protecting and Managing the Natural Resource Base
35. The JPOI notes that human activities are having an increasing impact on the integrity of ecosystems that provide essential resources and services for human well-being and economic activities. In this regard, managing the natural resources base in a sustainable and integrated manner is essential for sustainable development. This section addresses atmosphere (climate change and ozone depletion), forests, biodiversity, land and desertification, coastal and marine resources and fisheries.
3.1 Atmosphere
36. Africa is extremely vulnerable to climate variability and climate change. Variations in rainfall patterns have led to incidences of drought and flooding, often with disastrous consequences for populations and for the environment (UNEP, 2002). Climate change is now recognized as a pressing global problem. Africa's CO2 emissions from the use of fossil fuels are low in relation to other regions, in both absolute and per capita terms. A handful of African countries account for the bulk of the region's emissions from fossil fuel: South Africa accounts for 42 percent, with another 35.5 percent coming from Egypt, Nigeria and Algeria. Although Africa contributes very little to the Green House Gas (GHG) emissions, the region is highly susceptible to the impacts of climate change because of its dependency on agriculture and limited financial resources for development of mitigation strategies.
37. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) promotes stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. The Kyoto Protocol of 1997 establishes legally binding obligations on developed country parties to reduce emissions of greenhouses gases (GHGs) within specified timeframes. As of May 2004, out of the 53 African countries, 52 (98%) had ratified or acceded to the UNFCCC. The Kyoto Protocol entered into force on the 16th of February 2005. As of 2 August 2005, 38 African countries (72 %) had ratified or acceded to the Protocol. Given their susceptibility to the adverse effects of climate change, African countries have identified adaptation to climate change as their key priority. The climate change programme of NEPAD will help African countries to meet their commitments and priorities associated with the implementation of the UNFCCC and its Kyoto Protocol. (UNEP et al, 2003a).
38. With regard to the protection of the ozone layer, the JPOI contains a target on improving access by developing countries to alternatives to ozone-depleting substances by 2010, and to assist them in complying with the phase-out schedule under the Montreal Protocol. The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer was concluded at Vienna on 22 March 1985 as a framework convention intended to address the adverse effects on human health and the environment brought about through the modification of the ozone layer as a result of man's activities. The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was concluded in Montreal on 16 September 1987. The overall purpose of the Protocol is to gradually reduce and finally phase out global emissions of all ozone-depleting substances (ODS) (UNEP, 1999). All African countries are parties to the Convention, Protocol and its various amendments.
39. The UNEP 2002 assessment synthesis report states that the Montreal Protocol is working, and the ozone-layer depletion from the Protocol's controlled substances is expected to begin to ameliorate within the next decade or so. However, phase-out in 2005 would require accelerated investments to change to ODS-free technologies, also accepting HCFCs, in all industries and processes now using ODSs, including the servicing sector. With regard to methyl bromide, which is particularly relevant to African countries. Suitable alternatives are available to allow substantial reductions in methyl bromide use in Article 5(1) countries provided that financing is available from the multilateral fund and markets in non-Article 5(1) countries continue to provide economic incentives for commercialization and registration of alternatives.
3.2 Forests
40. Forest-related JPOI targets include accelerating implementation of the Intergovernmental Panel on Forests / Intergovernmental Forum on Forests (IPF/IFF); proposals for action by countries and the Collaborative Partnership on Forests; and intensification of efforts on reporting to the United Nations Forum on Forests to contribute to an assessment of progress in 2005.
41. The total forest cover in Africa was estimated to be slightly less that 650 million hectares in 2000, equivalent to 17 percent of the global forest cover, and approximately 22 percent of Africa's land area. Africa has 14 different types of forest, in temperate and tropical climates, but the extent of forest cover varies between regions. Forests make up approximately 45 percent of the land area of Central Africa, constituting 37 percent of the total forest cover. In contrast, only 8 percent of the land area of countries in North Africa has forest cover and most of this is in Sudan (UNEP, 2002). Africa's forests are under threat across the entire continent. Only a small proportion of the total forest area is legally protected (in reality this category of forest is unprotected on the ground). Estimates are that closed humid forests comprise only about 13.8 percent of total protected areas in Africa with much of the 26, 300,000 hectares of biodiversity-rich tropical evergreen broadleaf forests in Africa remaining unprotected (UNEP et. al., 2003b). Africa has the fastest rate of deforestation anywhere in the world. Forest loss between 1990 and 2000 was more than 50 million hectares, representing an average deforestation rate of nearly 0.8 percent per year over this period. (ibid).
42. In order to mitigate and reverse this trend, countries have undertaken a wide range of measures and actions including: establishment of integrated forest monitoring systems, implementation of regional agreements on forest conservation and initiating regional eco-certification schemes on timber production. Partnership initiatives in forest conservation are also quite important. The Congo Basin Forest Partnership is a United States government initiative to promote the conservation and responsible management of the Congo Basin's tropical forests. The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto protocol gave a major boost to the notion of forest-based greenhouse gas mitigation, and provides an important opportunity to maintain prime forests and regenerate degraded ones. (UNEP et al, 2003 b). The forest programme of the Environment Action Plan of NEPAD is yet another opportunity for African countries to protect and manage their forests sustainably. With regard to the key forest-related JPOI target, 1610 of the 46 countries that submitted voluntary reports on the implementation of the IPF/IFF proposals for action, or responded to voluntary questionnaires about the effectiveness of the International Arrangement on Forests (IAF), in preparation for the fifth session of the United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF), were from Africa. http://www.un.org/esa/forests/documents-unff.html#4, 17 August 2005.
3.3 Biodiversity
43. In relation to biodiversity, a key target contained in the JPOI is for countries to achieve a significant reduction in the current rate of loss of biological diversity, by 2010.
44. The Africa Environment Outlook (AEO) of 2002 states that Africa has a rich and varied biological resources forming the region's natural wealth on which its social and economic systems are based. The humid tropical forests of equatorial Africa are among the most productive ecosystems in the world. However, even the arid areas of Africa (desert and Sahel regions), harbour many plant and animal species. There are 25 internationally recognized biodiversity hotspots - six of these are in Africa namely: the Mediterranean Basin Forests, the Western Indian Ocean Islands, the Cape Floristic Region (South Africa), the Succulent Karoo (shared between South Africa and Namibia), the Guinean Forest, and the Eastern Arc Mountain Forests (Eastern Africa). Africa also has a range of aquatic habitats, including marine ecosystems with very high levels of biodiversity.
45. Africa's biodiversity is under threat from four main sources: natural habitat loss, loss of species or subspecies, invasion by alien species, and lack of recognition of indigenous knowledge and property rights. The ultimate causes of habitat loss in Africa are human population growth and the resulting demand for space, food and other resources; widespread poverty; a dependence on natural resources and economic pressures to increase exports, particularly agricultural produce, timber and mineral products. Species loss is mainly as a result of the loss of natural habitats, illegal hunting for food, medicinal, or commercial use and national and international trade.
46. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was adopted as a global response to the loss of biological diversity. The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety was adopted in 2000 with the objective of contributing to ensuring an adequate level of protection in the field of safe transfer, handling and use of living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology. As of January July 2001, 52 (98%) of African countries had ratified or acceded to the CBD. As of 10 August 2005, 35 African countries (66%) had acceded to or ratified the Cartagena Protocol. (www.biodiv.org, 07-12-04, www.biodiv.org/biosafety/protocol 10-08-05)
47. The typical response to warnings of natural habitat loss has been to increase the number and extent of protected areas. Only six African countries (Botswana, Burkina Faso, Namibia, Rwanda, Senegal and Tanzania) have more than the international target of 10 percent of their land under protection (World Bank 2001 in UNEP, 2002). An international response to species loss is the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). To date, 50 African countries (94%) are Parties to the Convention (www.cites.org 10-08-05). Species reintroduction, ex-situ plant propagation, tightening controls on importation of products of animal or plant origin are some additional efforts to counteract the recent rapid loss of species loss. Participation of indigenous peoples in biodiversity conservation is now being assured through increasing efforts to understand indigenous knowledge systems and to promote their continued application. The CBD also recognizes the value of traditional knowledge.
3.4 Land
48. Africa has abundant natural terrestrial resources. The direct dependency of most Africans on land, and the heavy economic dependence of many African countries on agricultural and mineral resources, creates a unique regard for land in Africa, as well as unique production pressures and competition for resources (UNEP, 2002) An increasing number of African countries are facing problems of land degradation and desertification. The expansion of agriculture into marginal areas, particularly semi-arid areas, and clearance of natural habitats such as forests and wetlands has been a major driving force (UNEP et al, 2003c). Although land degradation is a physical process, its underlying causes are firmly rooted in the socio-economic and cultural realms in which land users operate. Poverty and population pressure are key factors leading to land degradation. Other issues, such as inequitable land access, tenure polices, alternative income-generating opportunities and labour constraints are additional factors important determinants of land degradation (UNEP, 2002).
49. In recognition of their vulnerability to declining land quality and desertification, African countries were largely instrumental in the establishment of the United Nations Convention to Combat Drought and Desertification (UNCCD), (UNEP, 2002). African countries are implementing the UNCCD through National Action Plans (NAPs), which identify the priority problems, related to desertification and present activities needed to address these problems. Four Sub- Regional Action Programmes (SRAPs) have been prepared and the elaboration of the one for Central Africa has been launched. The programme to address land degradation, desertification and drought under NEPAD is based on the Regional Action Programme (RAP) and the SRAPs of the UNCCD for Africa.
3.5 Coastal and Marine Resources
50. The JPOI targets on coastal and marine resources include encouraging the application by 2010 of the ecosystem approach for the sustainable development of the oceans, and establishing by 2004 a regular process under the United Nations for global reporting and assessment of the state of the marine environment.
51. The African coastal zone supports a diversity of habitats and resources, encompassing mangroves, rocky shores, sandy beaches, deltas, estuaries and coastal wetlands, coral reefs and lagoons (UNEP, 2002). These ecosystems contribute significantly to the livelihoods of coastal communities and to national economies. These resources have intrinsic value including shoreline stability, beach enrichment, nutrient generation, recycling and moderation of pollution (IOC, 1998 in ECA, 2001). Coastal areas in Africa are experiencing rapid population growth due to the highly diverse and attractive resources of the coastal and marine environments. According to an FAO news brief of 2001, 52 percent of Africa's coastal zones was already moderately to highly at risk of being threatened from human activities. The economic activities in the coastal and marine environment range from fishing, agricultural activities, tourism, industrial activities such as oil and mineral mining and infrastructure development (UNEP, 2002). Events such as the El Nino as well as scientific assessments indicate that the expected impacts of climate change and sea level rise in particular, will exacerbate the present problems. (GOOS, 1998, in UNECA, 2001).
52. Responses to challenges in the African coastal and marine environments have been many. African countries have increasingly adopted policies, strategies and action plans and instituted institutional mechanisms for improved and integrated management of the coastal and marine environments. At the sub-regional level, cooperation exists in the protection, management and development of the marine and coastal environment. These include the adoption of the Nairobi Convention by Eastern African States, the Abidjan Convention by West and Central African States and the Jeddah Convention to which North African States are Parties. Regional level initiatives include the Pan African Conference on Sustainable Integrated Coastal Management (PASICOM) and the Cape Town Conference on Cooperation for the Development and Protection of the Marine and Coastal Environment in sub-Saharan Africa, both organized in 1998. The Cape Town Conference adopted the Cape Town Declaration. An important component of the Declaration is the African Action Plan and Strategy for the Development and Protection of the Coastal and Marine Environment in sub-Saharan Africa, known as the "African Process". The overall objective of the Coastal and Marine Resources programme of the Environmental Initiative of NEPAD is to support the implementation of the objectives of the Abidjan and Nairobi Conventions and to contribute to the implementation of the decisions of the African Process. In addition, the objectives of this programme area will aim at assisting African countries to implement the relevant provisions of the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land Based Activities (UNEP et al, 2003d).
3.6 Fisheries
53. In order to achieve sustainable fisheries, the JPOI pronounced many actions including target dates to reverse negative trends. These include: maintain or restore depleted fish stocks to levels that can produce the maximum sustainable yield, on an urgent basis and where possible by 2015; put into effect the FAO international plans of action by the agreed dates: - for the management of fishing capacity by 2005; and - to prevent, deter and eliminate illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing by 2004; develop and facilitate the use of diverse approaches and tools, including the ecosystem approach, the elimination of destructive fishing practices, the establishment of marine protected areas consistent with international law and based on scientific information, including representative networks by 2012; eliminate subsidies that contribute to illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and to overcapacity; and support the sustainable development of aquaculture, including small-scale aquaculture, given its growing importance for food security and economic development.
54. Africa currently produces 7.31 million tons of fish each year. Of these 4.81 million tons is from marine fisheries, and 2.5 million tons from inland fisheries. While capture fisheries rose steadily throughout the 1980s and 1990s they have stagnated since then, reaching about 6.85 million tons in 2002. Aquaculture on the other hand has risen, but slowly, and only in Egypt has growth achieved rates of increase seen in other parts of the world, rising from 85,000 tons in 1997 to over 400,000 tons in 2004. The AEO of 2002 attributes the decline of African fish stocks to overfishing by foreign fleets and destructive harvesting methods such as dynamite fishing and bottom trawling. These trends combined with population growth have had negative impact on the levels of per capita fish consumption in sub-Saharan Africa. These have hardly increased in Sub-Saharan Africa over the past 30 years; in fact, per capita fish consumption has declined significantly in Sub-Saharan Africa since the mid-1980s (IFPRI / WorldFish Center, 2003b).
55. In striving towards achieving sustainable fisheries, African countries have undertaken a number of initiatives: Twenty-five countries in West and Central Africa are participating in the Sustainable Fisheries Livelihood Programme (SFLP), in partnership with the Department for International Development (DFID) of the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO). Among others, the SFLP assists governments in drafting policy and action plans that incorporate some of the provisions of Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries CCRF) and subsequently integrating them into large scale programmes like the National Programmes for Poverty Alleviation (http://www.sflp.org/eng/index.html, 16-08-05).
56. Increasingly, African countries are designating nationally protected marine areas and the practice of dynamite fishing has been eliminated from some of these areas (UNEP, 2002). Countries are also regulating beach seines and developing alternative activities to improve the livelihoods of poor fishermen. (http://www.sflp.org/eng/index.html, 16-08-05). Projects identified in the NEPAD coastal, marine and freshwater resources programme include those addressing biodiversity and those employing integrated management approaches in these environments. Strengthening management, monitoring, control and surveillance capacity in fisheries management organizations in sub-Saharan Africa is one of the projects proposed (UNEP et al, 2003 d). African countries, through the NEPAD are in the process of implementing the global Fish-for-All initiative. The Initiative builds upon global agreements such as the WSSD targets and the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. The NEPAD Action Plan (10 July 2005 draft), for Fisheries and Aquaculture Development in Africa will be discussed at a regional meeting in Abuja commencing 22 August 2005. The CAADP Action Plan has recognized the importance of fisheries in the region and the potential for development of aquaculture. (www.fishforall.org, 16-08-05).
4 Changing Unsustainable Patterns of Consumption and Production
4.1 Ten-Year Framework of Programmes: The Marrakech Process
57. The JPOI states that fundamental changes in the way societies produce and consume are indispensable for achieving global sustainable development. In this regard, it calls for the promotion of sustainable consumption and production patterns by all countries, with developed countries taking the lead, while ensuring that all countries benefit from the process. Further, the JPOI calls on countries to encourage and promote the development of a 10-year framework of programmes in support of regional and national initiatives to accelerate the shift towards sustainable consumption and production. It is in this context that the International Expert Meeting on the 10-Year Framework of Programmes for Sustainable Consumption and Production (SCM) was held in Marrakech, Morocco, in June 2003 (referred to as the Marrakech Process). (http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/sdissues/consumption/Marrakech/conprod10Y.htm, 17-08-05). Many regional meetings followed the Marrakech process.
58. The African Roundtable on Sustainable Consumption and Production (ARSCP) was established as a non-governmental, not-for-profit regional coordinating institution during the Third African Roundtable on Sustainable Consumption and Production held in Casablanca, Morocco.(http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/sdissues/consumption/Marrakech/conprod10Yafr.htm., 17-08-05). The First African Expert Meeting on Sustainable Consumption and Production was held in Casablanca, Morocco, in May 2004. The meeting identified regional and sub-regional priorities relating to SCP and explored the linkages between consumption and production patterns and poverty, in particular how SCP can contribute to poverty alleviation and economic development and provide opportunities to "leapfrog" into sustainability. The "Casablanca Statement on SCP" was adopted by the meeting and transmitted to the meeting of the African Ministerial Conference on the Environment (AMCEN), held in Libya in June 2004 (http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/sdissues/consumption/ Marrakech/conprod10Yafr.htm, 17-08-05).
59. The Second African Expert Meeting on the 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (SCP), held in February 2005, identified the priorities and concrete activities that have been and could be carried out in the region in the area of water, energy, urban environment, and renewable resource based industries. AMCEN endorsed the outcome from the meeting stating that it is to be used as the basis for the development and implementation of the 10 Year Framework of Programmes on SCP in Africa. (http://icspac.net/kenya0205.htm, 17-08-04). The Framework will serve as an input to the 2nd International Experts Meeting on SCP to be held in Costa Rica in September 2005.
4.2 Chemicals and Hazardous Waste
60. The JPOI calls for renewal of the Agenda 21 commitment to sound management of chemicals throughout their life cycle and of hazardous wastes for sustainable development as well as for the protection of human health and the environment. It states that countries can achieve this by among others: aiming to use and produce chemicals in ways that do not lead to significant adverse effects on human health and the environment, by 2020, promoting the ratification and implementation of relevant international instruments on chemicals and hazardous waste, including the Rotterdam Convention and the Stockholm Convention. It recommends the development of a strategic approach to international chemicals management, based on the Bahia Declaration and Priorities for Action beyond 2000, by 2005, and encourages countries to implement the new Globally Harmonized System for the Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) as soon as possible, with a view to having the system fully operational by 2008.
61. The Rotterdam Convention on prior informed consent for certain hazardous chemicals entered into force on 24 February 2004. (http://www.pic.int/en/viewpage, 18-08-05). As of 8 August 2005, 30 African countries (57%) had either ratified or acceded to the Convention. The Stockholm Convention on persistent organic pollutants (POPs) entered into force on the 17 May 2004. To date, 30 African countries (57%) have either ratified or acceded to the Convention. The first meeting of the COP was held in Uruguay in May 2005. (http://www.pops.int/ 18-08-05).
62. The "Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management" (SAICM) was adopted in February 2002 to promote the incorporation of chemical safety issues into the development agenda. In order to meet the target on SAICM, the UNEP Governing Council, in February 2003, adopted a decision endorsing the concept of an international conference to be held around the end of 2005 (http://www.chem.unep.ch/saicm/ 18-08-05). Work on the further development of the SAICM commenced in November 2003. The second session, was held in Nairobi, in October 2004. The last session of the PrepCom will take place in Austria in September 2005 (http://www.chem.unep.ch/saicm/prepcom1/Default.htm, 18-08-05).
63. In order to meet the target of having an operational GHS by 2008, ECOSOC endorsed it in July 2003 (ECOSOC, 2004). The United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR) and the International Labour Organization (ILO) are running GHS capacity-building pilot projects in many developing countries including Zambia, South Africa and Senegal. In 2005-2006, UNITAR will be supporting national GHS implementation and capacity building projects in more developing countries to include, Nigeria, Senegal and The Gambia. (http://www.unitar.org/cwm/b/hc/, 18-08-05).
64. The Basel Convention on the Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal was adopted on the 22 March 1989. As of 8 April 2005, 42 African countries (79%) had acceded to the Convention. (http://www.basel.int/pub/basics.html, 18-08-05). An amendment to the Convention was introduced in 1995. The Amendment brings the objective of the Basel Convention closer to those of the Bamako Convention. This is one of the main reasons that prompted the OAU to encourage African countries to ratify the Basel Convention after ratifying the Bamako Convention. However, the amendment is not yet in force, but nine African countries have so far acceded to it. The Protocol on Liability and Compensation was adopted in Basel in 1999. The Protocol is not yet in force. However, as of 8 April 2005, out of five accessions, four were by African countries.
65. The Bamako Convention on ban of the import into Africa and the control of transboundary movement and management of Hazardous Wastes within Africa, was adopted in 1991, due to concerns that certain provisions of the Basel Convention failed to adequately address their major concerns, notably the absence of a ban provision. The Convention came into force on the 22 April 1998. To date, it has either been ratified or acceded to by 21 countries (40%). (http://www.africa-union.org/Official_documents/ Treaties-Conventions, 18-08-05). In spite of its significance for African countries in regulating the hazardous waste trade, it has been noted that the ratification and implementation of the Convention has been very slow. However, it is envisaged that the first Conference Of Parties will be held in Mali, in November 2005.
4.3 Sustainable Tourism Development
66. The JPOI calls on countries to promote sustainable tourism development, including non-consumptive and eco-tourism, taking into account the spirit of the International Year of Eco-tourism 2002, the United Nations Year for Cultural Heritage in 2002, the World Eco-tourism Summit 2002 and it Quebec Declaration, and the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism as adopted by the World Tourism Organization (WTO). The goal is to increase the benefits from tourism resources for the population in host communities while maintaining the cultural and environmental integrity of the host communities and enhancing the protection of ecologically sensitive areas and natural heritages.
67. Tourism can play a very important role in sustainable development and generate benefits for the poor. In this regard, WTO and the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) launched the Sustainable Tourism-Eliminating Poverty (ST-EP) initiative aimed at linking the development of sustainable tourism to the cause of eliminating poverty (ibid). In 2002, stakeholders in the tourism industry including 20 countries in Africa, made a declaration on responsible tourism in Cape Town with reference to major sustainable development milestones, NEPAD and the WTO/UNCTAD ST-EP initiative. (http://www.responsibletourismpartnership.org/declaration.html, 19-08-05).
68. Realizing the benefits of pro-poor tourism, countries have started adopting policies that unlock opportunities for the poor within tourism. A case study conducted in The Gambia demonstrates how partnerships at the local level between the private sector, government and poor producers can significantly raise incomes for the informal sector in resorts. Another case study conducted in South Africa demonstrates how government policy can encourage the private sector to adopt poverty reduction practices and to monitor and report the results. Community-based tourism associations are now being formed in major tourist destinations in Africa, such as Namibia and Uganda. ( http://www.icrtourism.org/propoor.html, 19-08-05).
69. In order to assist tourism companies in implementing local linkages and partnerships and in enhancing local impact, a Pro Poor Tourism Tools and Tips Project has been launched in Southern Africa. (http://www.responsibletourismpartnership.org/, 19-08-05). The International Center for Responsible Tourism, which is a post-graduate training and research center based at the University of Greenwich, is one of the organizations promoting sustainable tourism in Africa. The Center now has sister organizations in The Gambia and South Africa. (http://www.icrtourism.org/, 19-08-05).
4. 4 Energy
70. The JPOI calls on countries to diversify energy supply and substantially increase the global share of renewable energy sources; improve access to reliable, affordable, economically viable, socially acceptable and environmentally-sound energy services and resources; remove market distortions; establish domestic programmes for energy efficiency and accelerate the development and dissemination of energy efficiency and energy conservation technologies.
71. Africa is relatively well-endowed with energy resources. In 2004, its proved oil, gas and coal reserves were 9.4%, 7.9% and 5.54% respectively of the world total17. The hydropower potential of the continent amounts to 13% of the world. However, with a population of 13.1% the world total, Africa consumes only 5.5% of the world energy, and it generates only 3.1% of the world electricity. The per capita energy consumption of 0.5 TOE, far lower than the world average of 1.2 TOE per capita, makes the continent lag behind all the others in energy use.
72. The limited modern energy production and consumption critically impairs socioeconomic development in Africa. Industries and productive activities (agriculture, commerce) require energy in various forms to fuel machines, power transformation processes, conserve perishable goods, ensure transport, etc. According to UNIDO, high levels of income per capita tend to be associated with higher levels of industrialization18, and the World Bank has established a link between energy consumption and GNP, thus economic development19.
73. The international community and Africa has responded to the energy challenges through numerous actions. One can highlight the following few initiatives: 1) to increase energy access in poor rural and urban areas such as the UN-Habitat "energy scale up initiative"; the UNDP, IEPF programme for "capacity building and investment in mini/micro hydro power" in 11 African countries in partnership with ECA, UNIDO and UNEP; the UNIDO energy productive use programme; the UNEP "African rural energy development project"; and the "regional rural electrification programme" developed by ECOWAS; 2) to change energy production/consumption patterns such as the UN-Habitat "Sustainable Transport Action Network for Africa" programme; the FAO "Wood Energy Information System (WEIS)", the development of Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency by UNEP, UNESCO and UNIDO; 3) for capacity development and advocacy in African countries (UNEP, IAEA, FAO, ECA, etc); 4) for energy investments led by the ADB, and UNEP. Technical and financial support were given to regional actors such as the Economic Communities and the AU/NEPAD to develop energy production infrastructure, intra-Africa energy trade and regional energy markets with the creation of regional power pools, and the launching of feasibility studies for oil and gas pipelines projects.
4. 5 Mining
74. The JPOI calls on countries to enhance the contribution of the industrial sector (in particular mining, minerals and metals) to the sustainable development of Africa by supporting the development of effective frameworks and broad-based participation, social and environmental responsibility as well as increased market access to create an attractive and conducive environment for investment.
75. In line with the above, African Ministers responsible for mineral resources development established the African Mining Partnership (AMP) in March 2002, as a platform to implement the mining chapter of NEPAD. The AMP objective as a high-level ministerial forum aims at influencing the agenda of mining in Africa with a view to achieving sustainable development. The AMP currently runs projects on beneficiation, artisanal and small-scale mining, environment, human resource development and promotion of foreign investment and indigenous/local participation in mining ventures. There has been impressive progress in the implementation of most of the projects. Furthermore, the AMP has evolved into a forum for African countries to discuss and take common positions on emerging issues of importance to Africa. A good example is AMP'stance on the EU's new regulations on chemicals - the Registration, Evaluation and Authorization of Chemicals (REACH), which implementation could have adverse social and economic impacts on mineral-dependent African countries. Negotiations are still ongoing.
76. The establishment of Communities and Small-scale Mining (CASM)-Africa in 2005 was of equal importance for Africa's efforts to implement the NEPAD chapter on mining. Through partnership with CASM (Global), CASM (Africa) will be a key conduit and platform for establishing critical in- country, locally owned programmes and influence the international agenda based on African experiences. CASM (Africa) will assist with on-the-ground implementation of ASM projects and activities. The Africa Mining Network (AMN) officially launched in 2005 represents another important initiative to facilitate information exchanges on minerals resources development in Africa, a key objective of NEPAD. The Southern and Eastern Africa Minerals Centre (SEAMIC), an ECA-sponsored sub-regional institution based in Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania has been playing an important role of facilitating training, research and development on industrial minerals applications and providing analytical services and consultancy for mineral identification and environmental assessment in support of NEPAD.
4.6 Corporate social responsibility
77. The JPOI calls for the enhancement of corporate social and environmental responsibility and accountability.
78. The World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) was established to provide business leadership as a catalyst for change towards sustainable development, and to promote the role of eco-efficiency, innovation and corporate social responsibility. The Council has member companies in Algeria and South Africa. In addition, the Council has regional network contacts in 5 African countries namely Egypt, Algeria, Nigeria, South Africa, Zimbabwe and Mozambique 20-08-05. The Global Compact Initiative was launched by the Secretary-General of the UN at the 1999 World Economic Forum in Davos. Networks have so far been formed in about 10 African countries. (http://www.unglobalcompact.org, 20-08-05).
79. In the African context, corporate social and environmental responsibility can address issues that affect the daily life of Africans through capacity building, transfer of technology, support for local communities, protecting and improving the environment, and health care and education, notably for HIV/AIDS. (http://www.uneptie.org/pc/sustain/10year /regional.htm, 17-08-05). The African Institute of Corporate Citizenship (AICC) is a non-governmental organization promoting responsible growth and competitiveness in Africa. The Institute has established various forums and centers aimed at ensuring the adoption of sustainable practices by African companies and foreign companies operating in Africa. The Africa Corporate Sustainability Forum (ACSF), one of the bodies of AICC is a member of the NEPAD Business Group (NBG) http://www.aiccafrica.com/, 20-08-05. The International Institute for Sustainable Development IISD has been invited to serve as a member of the the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Strategic Advisory Group (SAG) on Corporate Social Responsibility. AICC is one of the leading NGOs from around the world providing advisory input to IISD (http://www.iisd.org/standards/csr.asp, 20-08-05).
5 Means of Implementation
80. Although UNCED recognized that governments have the primary responsibility to implement Agenda 21, the considerable additional financial resources required to implement this plan, necessitated the call for international cooperation and assistance to support developing countries in meeting their sustainable development objectives.
5.1 Growth
81. Africa's overall Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth is estimated to have increased to 4.3 percent in 2001 from 3.5 percent in 2000. But there were wide disparities between the different sub regions with North Africa recording the highest growth (ECA, 2002). Real GDP grew by 4.6 percent in 2004, compared to 4.3 percent in 2003 (ECA, 2005a) and 3.2 percent in 2002. While increase in growth during 2002-2003 emanated from North Africa, the escalation between 2003-2004 was attributed to an improvement in performance of sub-Saharan Africa. Central Africa experienced the highest growth in 2004, followed by East Africa, North Africa, West Africa and Southern Africa. The favourable growth performance in Africa in 2004 reflects an upward trend since 1998. Unfortunately, the growth has so far not been translated to employment creation or poverty reduction (ibid).
82. The ADB African Development Report of 2004 however observed that many African countries have faced difficulties in sustaining high growth rates, resulting in great variability in economic growth rates from year to year. ECA's 2005 Survey of Economic and Social Conditions notes that investment in Africa is generally low. It barely exceeded 20 percent of GDP during 2000-2002. The low level of investment in Africa is partly due to the low savings rate in the region. On average, Africa had a savings rate of 21.1 percent of GDP during 2000-2002. The low level of domestic savings deepens dependence on external aid and renders African countries vulnerable to the volatilities of FDI and ODA flows.
5.2 Official Development Assistance (ODA)
83. At Rio, some developed countries reaffirmed their commitment to reach the target of 0.7 per cent of GNP for Official Development Assistance (ODA). In 2002, only five countries - Denmark, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway and Sweden achieved this target. The same countries met the target of 0.2 percent for ODA to the least developed countries (ECOSOC, 2004). At the International Conference on Financing for Development held in Monterrey, Mexico in 2002, the industrialized countries made a pledge to increase the quantity and quality of ODA to Africa.
84. After declining through most of the 1990s, net ODA to Africa has begun to recover, rising from a total US$ 15.7 billion in 2001 to US$ 21.2 billion in 2002 (ADB, 2004) and US$26.3 in 2003 (ECA, 2005a). The Development Assistance Committee (DAC) of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) accounts for not only the bulk of ODA as a whole, but also a significant share of ODA to Africa in particular. In terms of per capita Gross National Income (GNI), the five countries listed above led the way in donations in 2001-2003 (ibid) It has been noted that NEPAD has made great strides in international engagement especially in advocacy and in contributing to reversing the decline in ODA (NEPAD Secretariat, 2004 a). But ECA's Economic Report of 2004b estimated that there was an annual shortfall of US$ 20-25 billion of resources needed for African countries to achieve the MDGs.
5.3 Foreign Direct investment (FDI)
85. Foreign Direct investment (FDI) is the most important source of external finance for developing countries. But FDI inflows to Africa have mainly been concentrated on natural resource sectors and have remained low compared to other developing regions. Africa's share of FDI dropped from 25 percent in the early 1970s to just 5 percent in 2000. Generally, FDI is concentrated on the richer countries of the continent thus further marginalizing the great majority of the poorest African countries. FDI inflows to Africa decreased from US$19 billion in 2001 to US$11 billion in 2002. This downturn occurred at a time of worldwide slumps in FDI flows, although domestic factors were also a contributory factor. A slight increase, US$14 billion was registered in 2003 representing a 2 percent share of FDI inflows for the region (ADB, 2004), (ECA, 2004b). This was projected to rise to US$20 billion in 2004 (ECA, 2005a).
86. Oil-producing countries, particularly Algeria, Angola, Chad and Nigeria have been the main beneficiaries of FDI in 2003. However, it's been noted that the most attractive countries for FDI are those with large markets such as South Africa, Egypt, Morocco and Nigeria, and those that have addressed impediments to investments by improving the business environment such as Ghana, Ethiopia, Mauritius, Mozambique, Tanzania and Uganda (ECA, 2004a). FDI flows to the service sector, in general, and the electricity, wholesale and retail sub-sectors in particular, have been on the rise in recent years challenging the dominance of the extractive industries. (ECA, 2005a).
5.4 Debt
87. Many countries in Africa remain severely indebted. As a percentage of GDP, Africa's external debt is higher than any other developing region of the world. A substantial proportion of Africa's export earnings have been used for debt repayment thus imposing a huge debt burden on the continent, perpetuating poverty and contributing to environmental degradation as well as the inability of African countries to implement sustainable development agreements. However, a positive turn was observed in 2001. After increasing from US$ 163 billion in 1982 to US$309 billion in 1998, Africa's total debt decreased from 305 billion in 2001 to 297 billion in 2003. Thus debt burden and debt servicing have been on the downward trend since 2001 (ADB, 2004). However, this is not enough to extricate African countries from the debt overhang.
88. The Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPCs) Initiative, and later its enhanced version, was thought to ensure a permanent exit solution to Africa's debt problems. There now seems to be an emerging consensus, however, that many African countries continue to suffer from a debt overhang despite the HIPC Initiative and various actions in the context of the Paris Club (UNCTAD, 2004). The call of the Commission for Africa, otherwise known as the Blair Commission, for partnership between Africa and the developed world, which takes full account of Africa's diversity and particular circumstances, cannot be more apt (Commission for Africa, 2005). The cancellation of the debt of 14 African countries by the G8 Finance Ministers is highly welcomed. However, there is an urgent call for wiping out the debts of all highly indebted African nations. (www.bendingthearc.com, 10-08-05).
5.5 Globalisation and Trade
89. Globalisation poses new and major challenges in Africa. Despite the great opportunities globalisation offers, its benefits are not felt by Africa. Unfair international trade terms have contributed significantly to the low growth rates of Africa's economy. Terms of trade remain unfavourable and for most of the time, prices of primary commodities continue on the downward trend. Agricultural subsidies of the North have continued to undermine this very important sector in Africa that 70% of its population depend on for their livelihoods. The desire to remain competitive in spite of these negative externalities have continued to put pressure on Africa's natural resources, thus exacerbating environmental degradation.
90. The trade and development agenda agreed at Doha in 2001 gave renewed hopes to Africa but the failure of the Cancun talks in 2003 had stalled progress in its implementation. However WTO members are currently seeking to inject new life in the Doha Round of Trade Negotiations and the European Union, Africa's largest trading partner, is currently negotiating new Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs). This has rekindled hopes in the Doha trade and development agenda. (ECA Division News - http://www.uneca.org/trid/, 23-11-04). Trade Preference Schemes such as the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP), the Cotonou Accords, the European Union's Everything but Arms (EBA) agreement and the United States' African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA), have yielded benefits for Africa, but these cannot replace the benefits that Africa stands to gain in an equitable multilateral trading system.
91. The African Trade Policy Centre (ATPC) of the ECA was created in July 2003 as a vehicle for increasing the influence of African countries in the international trade arena. The Centre has contributed significantly to Africa's multilateral negotiations process. It has helped create consensus around defensible African positions on key trade issues and provided numerous technical studies that have informed policy formulation. ECA's Trade and Regional Integration Division (TRID) and ATPC organized a continental meeting on EPAs in Kenya, in September 2005. TRID and ATPC will also organize a high-level brainstorming meeting in November 2005 to prepare African countries for the WTO Ministerial summit scheduled for December in Hong Kong. (TRIDNews April/May, 2005).
5.6 Technology Transfer
92. The JPOI calls upon countries to promote, facilitate and finance, as appropriate, access to and the development, transfer and diffusion of environmentally sound technologies and corresponding know-how to developing countries and those in transition, on favourable terms.
93. Africa has the potential to avoid the environmentally damaging industrialization, through transfer of clean technology. However, many African countries, with very limited investment capital, continue to use older, less expensive and less efficient technologies. This is either because they may have limited access to environmentally-sound technologies, as it is protected by the companies that developed them, or because of lack of information.
94. In order to enhance access to cleaner technologies by African countries, UNIDO and UNEP have assisted in the establishment of National Cleaner Production Centres in many African countries including Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique, Morocco, South Africa, Tanzania, Tunisia, Uganda and Zimbabwe. However, many industries are still unaware of the potential benefits of cleaner production. Legislation and enforcement mechanisms to compel or encourage cleaner production are usually weak or nonexistent. (http://www.uneptie.org/pc/sustain/10year/regional.htm, 17-08-05). The "Information for Africa Climate Technology Transfer (IACTT)" project is an effort to provide African stakeholders with easy access to available up-to-date climate change resources. The other aspect of the project is the ultimate establishment of an African Cleaner Production network to share and exchange online data on production and pollution prevention and on technology transfer from industry. So far, networks have been established in four countries. (http://www.enda.sn/energie/climat/main.htm, 20-08-05).
95. Developing regions, particularly Africa, have concerns about Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement of the World Trade Organization (WTO). Strengthened Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) may lead to increased royalty payments required by technology-holders (http://www.twnside.org.sg/title/trips10-cn.htm, 20-08-05). It is for this reason that the WTO TRIPS Council has decided in February 2003 that its members should submit annual reports on actions undertaken or planned to facilitate technology transfer to Least Developed Countries (LDCs), as per Article 66.2 of the TRIPS Agreement (ECOSOC, 2004).
96. The availability of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in developing countries is still limited and a wide gap remains with developed countries, with sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia lagging behind. Narrowing this digital divide is a key task of the UN World Summit on Information Society (WSIS). The African Regional Preparatory Conference for the second phase took place in Accra, in February 2005, to prepare Africa for an effective participation in the second phase of the WSIS to ensure a strategic and interdependent digital partnership that will promote economic growth and human development of the continent. http://www.wsisaccra2005.gov.gh/, 20-08-05.
97. An important ICT initiative in the region is the Information Technology Centre for Africa (ITCA) hosted by the ECA. The ITCA is an ICT focused exhibition and learning centre to demonstrate to African policy makers and planners the value of ICT for African development. (http://www.uneca.org/eca_programmes/it_for_development/default.htm, 20-08-05). Top NEPAD priorities in ICT, which have reached the implementation stage, are the e-schools project and the provision of a fibre-optic submarine cable on the east coast of Africa. Furthermore, NEPAD is promoting the developing of a framework for e-governance, which includes the public service sector, election commissions and local government (Nkuhlu, WL, 2005).
5.7 Type II Partnership Initiatives
98. Type II Partnership Initiatives present additional opportunities for countries. In recognition of the need to create the enabling environment to promote public-private partnership for sustainable development, it was deemed that designing innovative models for partnerships between governments, the private sector and civil society at large could narrow the gap between policy and practice. Partnership Initiatives with particular focus on Africa include: Earth Observation for Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in Africa, NetMark Plus - A public-private partnership for sustainable malaria prevention; Niger Delta Fund Initiative; Nile Basin Initiative (NBI); The African Energy Legacy Projects (launched at WSSD); and Alliance for Rural Energy in Africa (AREA). Additionally, the Libyan Environmental General Authority has proposed an African Union Initiative on Promotion and Development of Agenda 21 in Africa. More information on these partnership initiatives and others is available at the CSD Partnerships Database at www.un.org/esa/sustdev/partnerships.
99. Some countries in Africa have begun initiating actions with a view to benefiting from the partnership agreements launched to date. Initiatives include awareness raising, information sharing, capacity building, development and posting of relevant strategy and response documents on websites, and dialogue with partners including linking with the donor community. The National Councils for Sustainable Development (NCSD)-Africa report has noted some particularly commendable initiatives undertaken by South Africa: Providing business support through the national treasury for WSSD partnerships; Creating a partnership portal; Developing a clear monitoring, evaluation and reporting framework for partnerships; and Addressing capacity needs for local partners.
100. In spite of the above, responses to the NCSD- Africa questionnaire indicated that most countries were either not aware of these partnerships initiatives, or were yet to fully internalise their benefits and additional opportunities.
6 Institutional and Strategic Framework for Sustainable Development
101. The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) established the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (UNCSD) as a high-level body responsible for coordinating sustainable development matter at the global level. UNCED also recommended the establishment of institutional arrangements at the regional, sub-regional, national and local levels. WSSD called for the strengthening of these institutional arrangements. UNCED and WSSD also recognize that the adoption and implementation of appropriate policies and strategies, as well as participatory approaches and mechanisms, are fundamental to successful implementation.
6.1 The Institutional Framework
102. Sustainable development coordinating entities at all levels (global, regional, national and local) should be closely linked and should be seen as mutually supportive. In the build-up to WSSD, Regional Commissions examined their potential role in the implementation of the outcomes of the Summit. It was recognized that given their positioning at the regional level, Regional Commissions could help bridge the gap between global agreements in sustainable development and national priorities and concerns (UNDESA, 2002, in ECA 2005b). Local level implementation is also considered crucial. Implementation experiences at this level could help inform policy formulation and implementation processes at the national level.
103. In the context of the mandate given to it, ECA has played, and continues to play, an important role in the implementation of the sustainable development agenda in the region. In 1997, the Ministers responsible for Economic and Social Development and Planning in Africa established the Committee on Sustainable Development (CSD), now referred to as the Africa-CSD. Since then, a number of institutional strengthening measures have been taken at the Ministerial and Committee levels as well as at the level of the Commission to enable it respond adequately to this mandate. At the third meeting of the Africa Committee on Sustainable Development (A-CSD), held in Addis Ababa, in October 2003, the need for effective national reporting was raised. In this regard, it was agreed that member States should report to A-CSD on issues relating to national implementation. Accordingly, the Commission invited member States to submit progress reports in the implementation of WSSD outcomes. Only Sudan, submitted its progress report.
104. The Commission recently completed a study on National Councils for Sustainable Development (NCSDs) in member States. The study was conducted between 2003 and 2004, involved 37 countries in Africa. A questionnaire survey provided information on 23 countries20 (survey countries), while a desk review provided information on 14 others21 (non-survey countries), as well as additional information on the survey countries. The study concluded that African countries, to varying degrees, have made progress in establishing institutions and putting in place the necessary instruments and processes to facilitate the implementation of the sustainable development agenda. However, these institutions do not adequately fulfill the role of NCSDs and a lot remains to be done to strengthen them, particularly with regard to eliminating the environmental bias and addressing the three dimensions of sustainable development in a holistic and integrated manner (ECA, 2005b).
105. Many regional and sub-regional bodies including UN agencies operating at the regional level support African countries in their implementation of the sustainable development agenda, notably the African Union Commission and the African Development Bank. The AU has made key changes in the way it leads the resolution of conflicts and managing peace building in war-torn and conflict countries. Its key organs have been reinforced in terms of mandates, budgets and leadership (Nkuhlu, WL, 2005).
106. The NEPAD Secretariat was established to coordinate the implementation of this regional development plan. With the support of UN Agencies and other development partners, the Secretariat has elaborated Action Plans in key areas. The seven Regional Economic Communities (RECs) 22 recognized by the African Union, as the implementing bodies of NEPAD, have been involved in the design and implementation of programmes and sub-regional projects. The African Capacity Building Foundation is conducting capacity building needs assessments for all RECs. This includes determination of funding required to implement programmes. However, a prerequisite to strengthening the effectiveness of RECs as drivers of regional economic integration is reducing the number of groupings and eliminating multi-membership (Nkuhlu, WL, 2005). At the national level, many African countries have taken steps to create national NEPAD focal points for co-ordination, monitoring and integrating NEPAD programmes and their national development plans at country level. Examples of these countries include Algeria, Rwanda, Nigeria, Mozambique, South Africa, Senegal, Ghana, Kenya and Gabon. These countries have designated ministers or set up ministries as focal points for NEPAD in their respective countries. (NEPAD Secretariat, 2004b).
107. African Civil Society Organizations (ACSOs) have, over the years, become more involved in sustainable development issues. The WSSD process served as a valuable lesson for African CSOs on the need to be better organized in pushing the continental agenda forward. (NESDA/WSSD Civil Society Secretariat, 2003). The Forum for African Civil Society on Sustainable Development (FACS-SD), which was launched in October 2003, has proved to be a valuable partner in articulating the needs of Africa and in paving the way to sustainable development on the continent.
6.2 National Policies, Strategies and Plans for Sustainable Development
108. The NCSD study revealed that African countries have adopted different combinations of policies, strategies and plans, to address sustainable development issues. The variation in combinations is an indication of the different perceptions that countries have of sustainable development. Policies, strategies and plans listed by the survey countries include those addressing national and rural development (Vision 2020s; National and Rural Development Plans); poverty (including PRSPs); environment; natural resources; agriculture; social issues; economic development; and sustainable development in the broad sense (NSSDs). It is encouraging to note that 75 per cent of countries that have adopted PRSPs have included them among their lists of sustainable development strategies, and that sustainable development principles and concerns are being integrated into national development plans. Some countries have revised their policies to take into account principles of sustainability, participation, efficiency as well as integrative, and harmonized development.
109. Most countries have incorporated or were in the process of incorporating global agreements in their various national development plans and/or sectoral strategies. South Africa, Lesotho, Kenya, Ghana, Zimbabwe, Egypt, and Cameroon have organized, or are in the process of organizing, national consultations in this regard. Some of these consultations have resulted in the development of roadmaps and response strategies to the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (JPOI) adopted at WSSD. The desk review revealed that all 14 non-survey countries have adopted many national policies, strategies and plans in various sectors of the economy. Uganda and Rwanda have adopted National Visions. Mauritania, Uganda, Burkina Faso, Togo, Rwanda and Madagascar have adopted poverty reduction/eradication policies and programmes, while Sao Tome and Principe and Burundi were in various stages of elaborating these. Burundi intends to address poverty reduction in the context of sustainable development. Burkina Faso was in the process of revising its PRSP to incorporate a more holistic and integrated approach with a view to providing a framework for its NSSD. Niger and Tunisia have already adopted their NSSDs.
7 Constraints and Challenges
110. Many constraints and challenges to the implementation of sustainable development agreements have emerged in the preceding sections. This section presents additional ones and specific pointers to constraints and challenges identified in the NCSD- Africa report. While some are institution and process related, others point to poor economic and political governance as well as external factors. The relative significance of each differs from country to country and they include:
Weak Institutional capacities and capabilities (human, financial and material resources);
Overlapping and conflicting mandates and legislation resulting in duplication of efforts and institutional rivalries;
Poor coordination and low level of cooperation among institutions and groups engaged in sustainable development issues;
Low level of awareness and appreciation of sustainable development issues;
Weak integration of the economic, social and environmental dimensions of sustainable development in policies, plans and programmes;
Poverty; population pressure; and food insecurity;
Inadequate access to environmentally sound technologies;
Civil wars and political instability prompting plundering of resources, mass exodus resulting in brain drain and erosion of gains made;
Low literacy rate and little freedom of speech;
Weak democratisation and decentralisation of power and resources;
Vulnerability to climate change and natural disasters as well as external shocks. This is particularly relevant in the case of Small Island Development States (SIDS) and other small economies;
The unsustainable debt burden; and
Africa's marginalisation in the globalisation process.
8. Lessons Learned
111. Peace, security, economic and political governance are critical to the successful implementation of the sustainable development agenda. Resources that could otherwise be used to implement sustainable development programmes have been diverted to finance conflicts. There has been a mass displacement and exodus of people from conflict zones thus causing chaos and exacerbating the brain drain. Due to poor economic performance, countries have not been able to assure adequate resources for implementation.
112. Poverty reduction is the overarching objective of sustainable development in Africa. In Africa, while it is acknowledged that corruption and greed are major contributing factors to natural resource degradation, persistent poverty has also been observed as contributing to environmental degradation. On the other hand, poverty and the direct dependence on natural resources for livelihoods have increased the vulnerability of poor Africans to environmental change. Given the above and the fact that socio-economic development in Africa is inextricably linked to people, resources and the environment, the reversal of the poverty trend in Africa, offers great opportunity for the sustainable development of Africa.
113. If sustainable development is to be achieved in Africa, and, indeed anywhere, its environmental, social and economic dimensions should be addressed in an integrated and balanced manner. The environmental bias in dealing with sustainable development issues in terms of institutions, policies and strategies has impeded progress in the implementation of sustainable development agreements. Environmental agencies are usually among weak agencies in government and therefore, alone, cannot guarantee success. Success can only be guaranteed if all actors are involved and all issues taken into account in an integrated and balanced manner.
114. Sustainable development is of a broad and crosscutting nature involving complex interactions with many stakeholders. It therefore calls for the establishment/ strengthening of effective coordinating and collaborating mechanisms and processes as well as multi-stakeholder participation to ensure that issues are dealt with in a holistic and integrated manner. It is important that overlaps and conflicts are eliminated and synergies harnessed. This is particularly pertinent in view of the limited capacities of African countries. Tradeoffs should be made wherever convergence cannot be assured.
115. Capacity (institutional, financial, human and technological) is a major constraining factor in achieving sustainable development. Therefore, capacity must be enhanced. Equally important is the prioritization of needs and actions in light of available capacity and to ensure that the most relevant and pressing needs are dealt with first, and adequately.
116. Political will is key to the attainment of sustainable development. Sustainable development calls for new and better ways of doing things. It requires accountability on the part of governments including the management and allocation of resources for development. This can only be realized if the political will exists to effect the necessary changes and undertake relevant actions to promote sustainable development.
117. International cooperation is key to realizing sustainable development objectives. The new and additional resources required to implement sustainable development programmes are considerable and are above the capabilities of African countries to generate. In this regard, the provision of appropriate and adequate development assistance to African countries is pertinent.
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http://www.un.org/ecosocdev/geninfo/sustdev/5years.htm
http://www.afdb.org
http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/partnerships
http://unfccc.int/resource/conv/
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http://www.unccd.int/convention/
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http://www.un.org/esa/forests/documents-unff.html#4
http://www.nepad.org/2005/files/caadp.php
http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/sdissues/consumption/Marrakech/conprod10Y.htm
http://www.uneptie.org/pc/sustain/10year/regional.htm
http://www.uneptie.org/pc/sustain/reports/regional%20initiatives/2SCP_Report_to_AMCEN_final.pdf
http://icspac.net/kenya0205.htm,