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ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR AFRICA

Emerging Issues in Science and Technology for Food Security and Sustainable Development in Africa

Sustainable Development Division
August 2003

SUMMARY
Africa is experiencing chronic food shortage as subsistence food production fails to meet consumption needs of a growing population. There is variability of food supply throughout the year, inability to purchase food because of low-income and pervasive poverty among the majority of the people, and ineffective methods in using available resources due to application of inferior technologies in agricultural production.

Clearly, current production methods and technologies cannot solve the immense food insecurity problems in Africa even if more land is brought under cultivation. In this regard, various science and technology issues must be tackled to enable Africa achieve food security and sustainable development.

People in rural areas need the infrastructure and the means for transporting farm inputs and outputs – implements, fertilizers, seeds, wood, water and farm produce. They require technological skills to start and maintain small-scale industries, such as those based on agro-processing. They also need to acquire skills to sustain production systems, for example, repair of agricultural equipment, maintenance of irrigation systems, use of low cost building materials and conservation of the environment. All these activities call for concerted efforts to generate, adapt and utilize specific types of technologies.

Emerging issues and challenges
Various science and technology issues emerge to enable Africa achieve food security and sustainable development. The major ones include:

· developing agricultural technology for meeting the increasing need for food at affordable prices;
· developing sustainable land management technologies for rangeland, forestland, grassland, swampland, marginal land, etc.;
· developing agricultural systems that conserve biodiversity within the system itself; and
· developing knowledge systems based on proper understanding of needs of households that depend on the ecosystem and indigenous knowledge of existing resources for their survival.

Poor technological capability remains one of the major constraints to Africa’s sustainable development that entails eradication of food insecurity. The lack of deliberate technological learning and implementation of technological policies that are in line with domestic economic problems and the challenges of globalization is overwhelming. Also overwhelming is the continent’s continuous failure to learn from the Newly Industrialized Countries (NICs) and to address properly the key issues that have shaped the development paradigm in these countries.

In most developing countries, semi-subsistence peasants and small-scale commercial farmers use family labour, simple technology and sometimes wage labour and minor elements of standard technology. However, the associated skills of applied agronomy, planning and management, are often missing. Likewise, many professionals and experts trained in the field of agriculture are unfortunately underutilized and many are dissatisfied with their working conditions. Additionally, lack of adequate infrastructure, suitable mechanisms for promoting science and technology for development and the requisite political will and commitment have led to poor science and technology culture in the continent.

Many African countries have developed science and technology policies for development but too often these policies have not been implemented properly. Likewise, legislations guaranteeing appropriate incentives to promote agricultural production and productivity (eg. subsidies, etc.) are woefully lacking. In such a context, foreign direct investment projects in productive sectors, have been few and far in between.

Lessons from past experiences
Science and technology have made enormous contributions to the growth of the agricultural sector in many parts of the developing world. As a result, global food production has increased by 80 percent since the mid-1960s. Africa, however, needs to double food production to accommodate population increase.

African countries may learn from various food security programmes and agricultural related technologies experienced over time and in many countries, especially developing ones. The most successful program, which may be emulated and replicated to suit specific conditions of African countries, is the Green Revolution.

The Green Revolution, which took place in Asia (India, Indonesia, Taiwan, Philippines, China and Japan) during the 1960s, is a major global scientific and technological achievement towards increased food production. Improved crop varieties, irrigation, pesticides and mineral fertilizer were introduced, which contributed to substantial improvement of food production. With this technological advancement in agriculture it was possible to develop varieties, which have contributed to higher food production and improved the returns to costly resources used by poor farmers. As a result, increased productivity has decreased food costs, in general, and thus improved food security, particularly for vulnerable sections of society.

Irrigation, drainage and efficient rainwater harvesting to cope with rising water scarcity are critical in ensuring adequate food production and food security. There is high potential in Africa for increasing food productivity through better control of water and increasing the use of plant nutrients. The concern should be reducing irrigation costs to enable smallholder farmers to manage farms in a manner that minimises resource degradation problems such as water logging and salinity.

A wide range of improved crop- and resource- management technologies were emphasized, which have improved environmental and resource sustainability. In this regard, it was possible to bring under cultivation less-favourable lands by introducing new plant varieties (e.g. drought-tolerant crop varieties), which in turn has also contributed to higher food production. This practice has reduced the conversion of forest, grasslands and swamplands for cultivation of food crops. For example, without advancement in agricultural technology, India would have cultivated nearly 60 million hectares of additional land to produce the quantity of wheat currently consumed.

This scientific and technological advancement went hand in hand with investment in institutional infrastructure and continued research activities to raise food production and productivity. In China, for example, infrastructural investment continued alongside remarkable efforts and achievements in the area of seed improvement. Consequently, the combination of a decentralized research system and successful extension services replaced the traditional varieties of rice and wheat with modern dwarf varieties by 80 percent at the end of 1970s. The Chinese experience, especially the post-1978 reforms, demonstrates the importance of incentives and a conducive institutional framework in maximizing the effects of agricultural infrastructure, and of successful research on, and dissemination of, new technologies.

Post-harvest technologies that encompass efficient crop handling, storage, processing, transportation, marketing and utilization need also to be promoted. These kinds of technology reduce food losses, add value to the crops, facilitate efficient trade, generate employment and new products for the market and provide diversification of food.

The policies that should be promoted
In order to enhance the contribution of science and technology to food production and security, five domains are a top priority: human resources development; increased investment in agriculture; establishment of appropriate institutions; formulation and adoption of appropriate policies and inter-country cooperation within and outside Africa. Additionally, exhibitions of agricultural technologies would generate some awareness to potential buyers and users of such technologies. There is, thus, an urgent need to enhance exhibition activities of agricultural technologies in the rural areas instead of limiting them to urban areas. Such events are vital in improving the use of modern agricultural science and technology amongst farmers and hence increase agricultural production, productivity and ultimately food security.

The importance of extension services to improved agricultural outputs, productivity and food security in African countries should not be underestimated. Extension services, to the extent that they aim at enabling the farmers adopt improved agricultural practices through interacting directly and intimately with the extension personnel, proves to be a most effective and efficient way of diffusing, assimilating, and absorbing improved agricultural techniques and technologies for increased production, productivity and food security.

Links, networks and alliances amongst agricultural research centres in the region need to be forged and strengthened in order to facilitate and foster modes of institutional collaboration that enhance agricultural production, productivity and food security.

At continental level, the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) offers ample opportunities for assisting, helping and supporting African countries in improving agricultural productivity and food security at a regional level. NEPAD may particularly:

· Assist and help African countries in their efforts towards developing food security policies, programmes and projects with financial commitments.
· Interface with the international community to channel resources to those countries with promising food security programmes and projects together with adherence to good governance and principles of human rights.
· Promote regional science and technology centres of excellence with particular focus on agricultural research, productivity and sustainable food security.
· Design practical methods by which African countries will be required to contribute to sustainable food security programmes.
· Establish a mechanism for monitoring global development and particularly technological advances and evaluate their implication on the process of agricultural transformation, production, and food security in African countries.

1.0 Introduction

Science and technology is critical for development in modern times. Likewise, global polarization into Developed and Developing Countries is partly attributed to different levels of science and technology development between countries in the North and those in the South. Technology development continuously offers ample opportunities that can be exploited to enhance development through achieving improvements in productive efficiency and productivity. Furthermore, technological development has profound and long-term impact on income distribution, economic growth, employment, trade, environment, industrial structure and defence and security matters (Stoneman, 1987).

The acquisition and use of science and technology are critical for the achievement and sustenance of food security . Through the use of scientific knowledge and technology, developed countries have been able to raise food production and extend productive opportunities outside the traditional land resources. Furthermore science and technology is essential in ensuring food availability, affordability and stability of access. Science and technology is also indispensable in the following four issues that form the basis for food security:

· production to meet increasing consumption needs;
· invariability of food supply;
· poverty reduction through fostering economic growth; and
· making more efficient use of world resources.

The attainment of food security, especially in the developing world, is still far in sight. It is believed that about 815 million people in the world were undernourished between 1997 and 1999. Out of those undernourished, 777 million reside in the developing countries while 27 million and 11 million come from transition economies and developed countries respectively. The majority of the undernourished people in the developing countries are found in Asia (61%), and 24% in Africa (FAO, 2002).

1.1 Food Security Situation in Africa
Africa experiences chronic and serious food shortage as food production fails to meet consumption needs of its growing population. Invariability of food supply, inability to purchase food, pervasive poverty among the people, underutilisation of available resources due partly to application of inferior technologies increase food insecurity in the continent. Within Africa, sub-Saharan Africa faces far more chronic food shortage than any other subregion.

Food shortage in Africa is not only caused by the factors cited above. In some regions, food production has been affected by natural calamities and/or human caused disasters. In Eastern Africa, for example, poor rains and prolonged civil wars over the years have greatly contributed to food shortages. Many people are threaten by hunger: over 500,000 people in Somalia; about 5.2 million in Ethiopia; 1.5 million in Kenya; 2 million in Sudan; 300,000 in Uganda; 1.3 million in Eritrea and 120,000 in Tanzania (FAO, 2002). In West Africa, food shortage persists in Chad and Ghana due to unfavourable weather; and Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone on account of civil strife and population displacement. The situation is worse in the war tone Great Lakes area where civil strife has disrupted agricultural production and productive activities. Over 2 million people in the Democratic Republic of Congo are displaced and are in critical need of food. The same applies to around 432,000 people in Burundi. Floods in southern parts of Malawi have affected over 600,000 people in food sustenance. 1.3 million people in Zambia face food shortage and in several parts in Zimbabwe. In Mozambique and Angola, 172,000 people and 1.3 million respectively need food assistance. Other countries affected in the region are Swaziland due to drought, Lesotho and Namibia due to poor cereal harvest (FAO, 2002 ibid).

1.2 The Use of Science and Technology in Production
The type of technology used for production in an economy is determined, to an extent, by the nature of production activities undertaken. By and large the level of scientific and technological advancement in Africa is low and much of food production is rural-based along with peasant agricultural production, fishing, and livestock keeping. These types of production activities depend, to an extent, on the availability of land and water. Fishing activities are undertaken in coastal areas, lakes, rivers, and artificial lakes (dams). Livestock keeping is common in grassland areas free from tsetse fly infestation. Off-farm production activities such as agro processing, small-scale industries, energy and transportation are also carried out. With such a diversified production structure the scientific and technological needs are also diverse.

1.2.1 Improving Agricultural Production
Agricultural production involves a number of activities ranging from land preparation, planting, weeding, irrigation, harvesting, processing and preservation or storage. Each stage of the production process demands particular types of scientific and technological inputs with environmental implications. The majority of African farmers use obsolete and poorly developed science and technology in their production endeavours. Planting, weeding and harvesting are done using mostly poorly developed technologies. Use of poor science and technology limit the amount of land available for cultivation as well as the efficiency of carrying out the production and storage processes. There is high potential and need for increasing output and productivity through improved practices.

1.2.2 Enhancing Fishing Technology
Much of fishing in Africa is practiced as a subsistence activity because of the use of poor technologies. The type of equipment used limits the fishing range. Modern fishing equipment is in short supply and unaffordable to most common fishermen who resort to environmentally destructive practices such as using dynamite and chemicals in fishing so as to increase their catch. This destroys coral reefs and other precious marine life. To avoid further deterioration of both the environment and people’s living standards, intervention efforts to improve technology in the fishing industry need to be taken.

1.2.3 Livestock Keeping
Cattle keeping is an important economic activity in Africa. However, livestock population and traditional production methods in use in much of the continent contribute heavily to land degradation. Desertification due to overgrazing is common in many parts of the continent. Some measures are taken to conserve the environment. In this connection efforts are needed to develop appropriate science and technology that can improve animal husbandry so as to enhance productivity in livestock industry and enable the sub sector to contribute significantly to the economy and food security in a sustainable and environmentally friendly manner.

1.2.4 Off-Farm Activities
Off-farm activities contribute to development in general and food security in particular. Technology, energy, water supply, transportation, agro-processing and other rural-based activities are needed to support people’s lives and production. Energy requirement puts a lot of pressure on the environment as large quantities of wood and trees are needed for energy generation in the Continent. This, in turn, brings about an increasing problem of deforestation as more trees are felled down to meet the demand for energy (Nilsson, 1986). Technologies need to be developed for the rural population that will maximize the use of the available resources in an environmentally friendly manner.

Furthermore, people in rural areas need means of transporting farm inputs and harvests to marketplaces. They also need to transport wood, water and, during harvest, to carry farm produce from farm fields to homes and godowns. The rural population requires appropriate skills, knowledge and experience to set up, operate and manage efficiently micro enterprises. Such enterprises can be based on the resources available in rural areas. They also need to acquire relevant skills and expertise to repair, upgrade and sustain production systems, like agricultural equipment, irrigation systems, low cost building systems and conservation of the environment. All these activities call for concerted efforts to generate, adapt and utilize specific types of appropriate science and technology and relevant infrastructural systems.

2.0 Emerging Issues and Challenges in Science and Technology

Africa needs to double food production in order to accommodate its population increase. Current production methods, which rely heavily on natural climatic conditions, cannot solve this problem even if more land is brought under cultivation. In this regard, improved agricultural practices based on advances in science and technology have to be used to achieve food security and sustainable development in the continent. The major emerging issues and challenges in science and technology for food security and sustainable development in the continent, thus, centre on the following:

· Developing and using appropriate agricultural science and technology which will meet the increasing need for food at declining prices without expanding agriculture into areas rich in biological diversity;
· Developing and using appropriate and sustainable management technologies and systems for common lands such as rangeland and forests;
· Developing and using efficient agricultural systems that conserve diversity within the system itself; and
· Developing and utilizing efficiently conservation strategies and knowledge systems based on proper understanding of the needs of households that depend on the ecosystem for survival and indigenous knowledge bases and systems of existing resources.

3.0 The Capacities, Competence and Institutions that Need to be Strengthened

Of the 44 countries with critical and persistent food security problems, 30 are in Africa. Present trends indicate that the number of chronically undernourished in sub-Saharan Africa would rise from 180 to 300 million by the year 2010. FAO has recently incorporated the three elements of its broadened concept of food security - availability, stability of supply and access - into an index of household food security. The Aggregate Household Food Security Index (AHFSI) calculates the "food gap" between the undernourished and average national requirements, the instability of the annual food supply and the proportion of undernourished in the total population. The index ranges from 0 to 100, with 100 representing complete, risk-free, food security and zero, reflecting total famine.

FAO categorized the food security situation with an index rating below 65 as ‘critical’. Between 1991-93 the following African countries were in this ‘critical’ category: Botswana, Burundi, Central African Republic, Chad, Ethiopia, Lesotho, Liberia, Mozambique, Rwanda, Somalia and Zambia. African countries with "low" food security, an index reading between 65 and 75, included: Angola, Cameroon, Congo, Gambia, Guinea, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritania, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zaire and Zimbabwe.

Thus, there is urgent need to bridge the widening food gap occurring each year in Africa. African economies will have to achieve rapid and steady improvement in agricultural productivity and reduction in cost per unit of food produced. One effective way of achieving this is to embark on research and development in agricultural science and technology. Agricultural research, new technology and improved crop husbandry and livestock breeds will continue to be an important prerequisite for increasing agricultural productivity. In turn, this will not only improve on food security directly but also enhance farmer’s income. Improved farmers’ income will enable them to buy more food to feed many of the African peoples afflicted by hunger and malnutrition.

3.1 Potential Benefits of the "New Frontiers in Agricultural Technology"
Traditional or conventional research methods in the last 30 years have been expensive and slow in generating productivity gains in agriculture in Africa. In contrast, modern techniques using the tools of biotechnology and molecular science have made their mark in the developed world over a relatively short time span. Unfortunately, poor countries have not benefited to any appreciable degree from these new tools and technologies in agricultural science. It is now imperative that African countries strive to use these tools, as they stand to gain most in boosting agricultural growth rates and hence fast economic growth. With the problems of pests, limited water availability, unpredictable weather and low access to inputs, boosting agricultural production in Africa will benefit enormously from new biotechnology tools.

3.2 Science and Technology for Improved Quality of Life
The semi-subsistence peasant and the small-scale commercial farmer in Africa use largely family labour and simple technology. Occasionally they employ a small amount of wage labour and rudimentary technology for production purposes (Bhagavan, 1984). At the same time, the associated skills and scientific knowledge of applied agronomy, planning and management, maintenance and repair of equipment, etc., which are usually learnt at enormous costs both locally and abroad, are minimally deployed in productive activities in the continent. It is also unfortunate to note that many African countries train many professionals in the field of agriculture but underutilise most of them. Consequently, many of these end up absconding from the profession.

It is a well-known fact that many African countries do not make full use of science and technology to improve the quality of life of their people. As a result, the quality and value of African exports to the world markets remains very low indeed. Furthermore, the science and technology culture is poor in many African countries with inadequate infrastructure, poor mechanisms for the promotion of science and technology for development and a shaky political will and commitment to facilitate enhanced scientific knowledge and technological advances.

It is gratifying to note that many African countries have, in recent years, developed explicit national policies for science and technology; but many of these are very broad and general. They are, thus, rarely translated into practical strategies, plans, programmes and projects (Mlawa, 1995). Likewise, legislations guaranteeing suitable incentives for the promotion of science and technology are badly lacking in a great many of African countries. In such a context, foreign direct investments through development projects are few and minimal.

The quality of life the people of the developed world lead and the strength and breadth of their national economies is a result of deliberate and systematic approaches and consistent policies towards the development and application of science and technology to all spheres of human endeavour. Modern technology has ensured regular and stable food production; and this has been a factor in the steady improvement in peoples livelihoods and declining death rates that have accompanied the rise and spread of modern technology in much of the now advanced countries in the world.

3.3 Some Technologies to be Promoted
Physical limitations are not the only cause of food supply problems in Africa. In many instances food is available but people lack the income and access to it. In other instances, potentially arable land is available but roads, irrigation, and other types of infrastructure are in a very bad condition. Further, government pricing policies that discourage production compounds the problem. It is imperative therefore to use some appropriate technologies so as to increase the productivity of the available resources if the problem of food security is to be addressed. Some of the technologies to be promoted are indicated in the paragraphs below.

Through the use of space science, facilities are now available for accurate weather and climate prediction, famine and early warning systems, population density projections and land resources surveys for crop suitability applications for specific areas. All these can be facilitated through the use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS). GIS can be utilised in timing of planting time, where to cultivate and what to cultivate depending on the weather.

Radiobiology, which is a physico-biological process of natural and/or induced mutations followed by the selection of the resistant survivors, which are later, propagated for multiplication is another useful technology. Radiobiology does not only hasten the process of developing pest and disease-resistant food crops but also assists in the protection of the environment through cutting down excessive use of chemicals. This may yet provide an opportunity for developing novel varieties requiring little water - a major limiting resource for food production in most of the developing world.

Biotechnology (including genetic engineering) is fast opening up new frontiers of knowledge in plant and animal science. This knowledge is providing tools to improve animal and plant productivity. Utilization of micro-organisms to drive specific processes, cell and tissue culture and microbiology have all brought desired effects in food, agricultural production and productivity as well as in industrial applications. The use of micro-propagation/tissue culture for rapid multiplication of disease-free materials, as well as the use of transgenic technologies to incorporate desired genes in crops and animals all present a huge potential for increasing food availability and reducing post-harvest losses.

The crucial source of competitive edge in the application of biotechnology is the reduction in the time required to achieve the improved product ranges relative to the use of conventional methods. Countries that have adopted the new technologies, particularly the application of genetic engineering through the use of transgenic crops, have reaped huge benefits. Some of the benefits that have come out of the method are in the development of crop varieties that are herbicide tolerant, crop products of high quality (including significant yield increases), and development of insect and fungal tolerant crops.

According to UN studies, about 72 per cent of sub-Saharan Africa's cropland and 31 percent of its pastureland is degraded - contributing to enormous losses in output. Meanwhile, 35 percent of Africa's children are malnourished. If current trends continue, by 2025 the region will produce enough food for only 40 percent of its projected 1.0 billion people. In such a situation, a green revolution to produce adequate food is necessary. However, a green revolution ‘will be impossible in Africa’ unless soil quality is improved so that these new varieties can thrive. With both high-yielding seeds and more fertile soils, it is estimated that rice and wheat yields could double, sorghum yields could triple and maize yields could quadruple.

There is urgent need for African countries to acquire and utilize appropriate technologies in agricultural production so as to reduce or alleviate food insecurity in the continent. For instance the use of the ox-plough instead of the hand hoe can be adopted widely since most people in Africa do keep animals. The use of tractors is also a possibility if workable strategies are put in place. For instance, governments may decide to subsidize prices for tractors and offer tax exemptions so as to enable many people purchase them. The application of modern technologies notwithstanding, the application of traditional technologies in agricultural production that does not destroy the environment, such as terracing, need to be encouraged, supported and improved.

3.4 The Success of the Application of New Technologies in Africa
The potential success of the new technologies in Africa will, however, depend on the existence of a stronger technical base, the presence of private sector entrepreneurs, investment capital flexibility and taking the advantage of the fast evolving information technology. Likewise, to adapt and make use of the new and emerging technologies, adequate support mechanisms are necessary. These include policy support, the development of marketing infrastructure as well as political will. Substantial investment in information technology will have to be made while strong networking among the African scientists themselves and with those in the Western world will need to be facilitated and subsequently enhanced.

3.5 Institutions
There are several national institutions that would need to be promoted if African countries are to deal effectively with food insecurity. For example, the Centre for Agricultural Mechanization and Rural Technology (CAMARTEC) and The Sokoine University of Agriculture in Tanzania have been for a long time providing farmers with appropriate technologies, including farm implements and biogas technology. The East African Community Regional Agricultural Centre, before 1977, was an important centre for generating appropriate agricultural technologies. Today the formation of the African Fertiliser Development Centre (AFDC), an AU organisation, can help to develop and improve agricultural systems by encouraging the use of appropriate fertilisers. It is these kinds of agricultural technology development and diffusion institutions that will need to be developed and sustained in order to improve agricultural productivity and food security. Links with the different research centres in African countries and outside the continent need to be established and strengthened.

4.0 The Policies that Need to be Promoted

The Lagos Plan of Action (1980) urges African countries to invest in science and technology in order to raise the standards of living and relieve misery in the rural areas. Agricultural exhibitions for showcasing technologies constitute a good means for technology awareness, assimilation and diffusion in Africa. There is, thus, urgent need to expand/extend exhibition activities to the rural areas instead of limiting them in urban areas. Such events are critical in raising agricultural science and technology awareness, hence increasing agricultural production and ultimately reducing or alleviating food insecurity.

The various strands of reform measures being undertaken in many African countries have to some extent left the small farmers without much government support and assistance to enable them access new technologies. There should be a concerted effort to educate dealers in agricultural technology, organise training workshops and send their agents to rural areas so as to promote new technologies. However, African governments need to actively and deliberately chart out policies that are pro-poor, ensuring that the new technologies are affordable and accessible to as many farmers as possible.

To raise the scientific and technological level of subsistence and small-scale commercial agriculture, one has to increase the supply of modern agricultural equipment to this sector. The problem, however, is not only one of ensuring a greater supply of modern equipment but also of devising ways and means through which farmers can get access to new agricultural knowledge and technologies. One approach of achieving this is to make it easier for farmers to borrow money, but also tying such loans to the purchase of equipment and equipment parts and accessories. Furthermore, generating the capacity to buy equipment is only the beginning of a long journey. There remains the task of making the peasants ‘learn’ the skills, knowledge and expertise required for the efficient use, maintenance, repair and upgrading of equipment. This requires, in the initial stage at least, a large group of mechanics, agronomists, fishery experts, etc. Further, locally viable organizational forms and institutional mechanisms will have to be put in place. Eventually, the peasants, having learned these diverse skills, will themselves become transmitters of the skills and expertise. The professionals like agronomists, fishery experts, etc., have to be trained (first formally and then on-the-job) a few years in advance of their required presence in the rural areas.

Since the state cannot afford to subsidize individual purchases of agricultural equipment on a mass scale, the answer lies in the following (not mutually exclusive) alternatives: individual or collective hiring of state owned equipment; and cooperative or collective ownership of equipment (Bhagavan, 1984).

The establishment and consolidation of cooperative societies remain important in increasing agricultural production, hence reducing or alleviating food insecurity. On the organisational side, the peasants and artisans will learn to form, operate and change collective or co-operative institutions. Savings and Credit Co-operatives Societies (SACCOS) in Tanzania are amongst the best practices to learn from. A spin-off of this practice will be mobilization of savings on a collective basis, which can be ploughed back into production, thus reducing state support through subsidies. The subsidies so released can now be put back to use for raising the technological level of other people in the rural communities.

It is now clear that ‘traditional’ paths of scientific and technological development cannot meet the urgency of food requirements in the continent as the methods are unable to cope with the demands of the rising population. The medium and long-term solutions to improve African agriculture lie partly in the transformation of the sector through, inter alia, the application of new science and technology to complement conventional research methods. There is ample evidence to suggest that the new scientific and technological frontiers, as opposed to the conventional methods, guarantee a positive impact on agricultural productivity while at the same time reducing reliance on unavailable and costly agricultural inputs.

As indicated earlier, science and technology can make substantial contributions to effective development of African agriculture. However, priority should be placed on at least five domains: human resources development; increased investments; establishment of appropriate institutions; formulation and adoption of appropriate policies; and inter-country cooperation and partnerships within and outside Africa.

5.0 The role of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT)

A decisive role can be played by information and communication technologies in promoting human capacity development for food security in Africa. Investments in scientific and material resources for agricultural production bear little fruit without parallel investments in human resources. To this end, information and communication technologies are powerful resources for informing people and providing them with the knowledge and skills they need to put agricultural science and technology inputs to effective use. The use of information and communication technologies can also help experts and people in general to exchange experiences, find common ground for decisions and actively participate in and guide development activities.

We live in an information age characterized by global expansion in mass media, through electronic "super-highways" that span the globe. At the same time, there is concern that the gap between the information rich and the information poor is widening. Remote rural communities are still difficult to reach - they lack communication infrastructure such as newspapers, telephones, televisions and radios. In rural areas of Africa, the challenge of bridging this information gap involves not only increasing the quantity and accessibility of communication technologies but also improving the relevance of the information to local communities. Some information and communication technologies and know-how do exist. The challenge is to use them effectively for sustainable agricultural and rural development and especially for improved food security.

Much more is now known about the interpersonal communication skills field workers need in order to function effectively as agents of change in rural communities. In some settings, interpersonal communication based on traditional social groupings may be the best and most effective ways to disseminate and exchange information. Farmers are accustomed to receiving information from other farmers and their membership in particular social groups may facilitate the introduction of new agricultural science and technology. Traditional and popular media, such as folk theatre, puppets, storytellers, songs and dance, traditional art and others, can all prove effective channels for farmer-to-farmer communication and for stimulating communities to take on development challenges head on.

A word of caution is, however, in order at this juncture: there is no single solution to improving agricultural output or better utilization of Africa’s natural resources. Therefore the issue of improving food security in Africa requires a multidimensional approach. Developing science and technology, while being a necessary condition for achieving sustained agricultural productivity and food security, is by no means a sufficient condition by and in itself.

6.0 Examples of Success and Best Practices on Food Security for Replicability in Africa

Africa has a lot to learn from other developing countries insofar as science and technology for food security and sustainable development is concerned. The successes and best practices from which Africa can learn may be divided into two categories: lessons of technological acquisition, transfer and innovation; and lessons on food security programmes especially in agriculture and related technologies.

6.1 Lessons of Technological Acquisition, Transfer and Innovation
One major challenge in food security and sustainable development in Africa appears to be in the area of acquisition of relevant agricultural science and technology, management of technology choice and transfer and management of appropriate innovations to adapt the imported technologies to local conditions. Examples can be learnt from successful developing countries in technological transfer, absorption and creation of local capabilities. Korea, Taiwan and Singapore are impressive examples in technology management. These countries had all the problems facing most resource-poor and low-income countries but managed to develop their own local competitive industrial base that were capable of competing well with the industrialized countries. Korea, for example, started with duplicative imitation in light industries such as textiles, plywood and consumer electronics in the 1960s, and in the 1970s steadily moved into the production of consumer durables and light machinery, parts, components, etc. Korea strived to build its own local knowledge base through education (well-balanced at all levels), foreign technology imports and the mobility of experienced technical people within her industrial firms.

Korea has achieved tremendous successes in using science and technology to develop its economy. There are a number of lessons African countries can learn from the Korean development experience. Some of these lessons include, inter alia:

· Adopting a policy on export promotion, which facilitates assimilation of foreign production technology and make local firms competitive in the changing international technology and market environment. This policy raised the average annual economic growth rate. African countries stand to benefit enormously by adopting this type of approach for their industrial development.
· Protecting local ‘infant industries’.
· Identifying ‘ambitious’ goals for local firms, which can facilitate local ‘learning-by-doing’ within technology importing arrangements.
· Expanding investment in education at all levels in order to facilitate enhancement and strengthening of indigenous technological capability building and accumulation in African countries.
· Creating incentives for effective use of competent African scientists and technologists who undergo internship programmes in industrialized countries where they can acquire necessary knowledge for subsequent and eventual absorption and diffusion in African country contexts.
· Developing research and development (R&D) institutions for effective linkages between local knowledge and foreign technology. Likewise, efforts need to be made to invest in S&T infrastructure to develop a conducive environment for expanded local R & D and their linkage with productive and service sectors in African country contexts.

6.2 Green Revolution
The green revolution, which took place in Asia (notably India, Indonesia, Taiwan, Philippines, China and Japan) during the 1960s, is a major global scientific and technological achievement towards increased food production and food security. On the one hand, improved crop varieties and agricultural practice (eg irrigation, pesticides and mineral fertilizer) were introduced, which contributed to substantial improvement of food production. With this scientific advance in agriculture it was possible to develop short-duration varieties, which have contributed to higher food production and increased economic returns to costly resources used by poor farmers. As a result, increased productivity has decreased food costs, in general, and thus improved food security particularly for vulnerable sections of society.

On the other hand, a wide range of improved crop and resource management technologies were emphasized, which have improved environmental and resource sustainability. It was possible to bring under cultivation in less-favourable lands by introducing new plant varieties (e.g. drought-tolerant crop varieties) which in turn has also contributed to higher food production. This practice has reduced acreage of forest, grasslands and swamplands for cultivation of food crops.

The above-mentioned scientific and technological advancement went hand in hand with investment in institutional infrastructure and facilitated expanded research activities to raise food production and productivity. In China, for example, infrastructural investment continued alongside a remarkable effort and achievement in the area of seed improvement. The combination of a decentralized research system and successful extension services replaced the traditional varieties of rice and wheat with modern dwarf varieties by 80 percent at the end of 1970s. The Chinese experience, especially the post-1978 reforms, demonstrates the importance of incentives and a conducive institutional framework in maximizing the effects of agricultural infrastructure and successful research on, and dissemination of, new technologies.

6.3 Technological Innovations
Recent technology innovations help in reducing reliance on unnecessary chemical inputs. For example, the area of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is currently providing considerable positive results. Several countries in Asia, which have experienced IPM programmes, have greatly reduced pesticide use while at the same time increased rice yields. The same experience has been recorded in the Andean regions of Colombia, Ecuador and Peru, where bean farmers are reported to have reduced insecticide use by 70 percent without lowering crop yields.

6.4 ‘Creation’ of More Arable Land
Disease control programmes have also successfully liberated numerous river valleys to enable effective use of land potential. For example, eleven countries that undertook successful Onchocerciasis Control Programme (OCP), were able to bring an estimated 8 million hectares of additional land to 22 million hectares available for cultivation before implementation of the disease control programme (FAO, 1996). In Burkina Faso, successful control of the vector of river blindness and the black fly has contributed to demographic change through a reduction of migration from river blindness prone fertile areas to less fertile areas. This increased agricultural output per person and per land unit at the national level.

6.5 Promotion of Rural Development Programmes
The rural sector is vital as it harbours a lot more people than any other sector in practically every African country. Investment directed to promote rural development and growth of agricultural sector would result in creating a conducive environment for increased agricultural productivity and food security. Burkina Faso, for example, has been able to improve food security through, among others, restructuring public financing in favour of the rural sector, which resulted to enormous improvements in agricultural productivity and production in that country.

6.6 Financial Commitment towards Agricultural Sector
Without financial commitment targeted at food security initiatives such as increasing agricultural productivity, improving rural infrastructure and institutions, research activities and dissemination of research findings to farmers, agricultural extension services, etc., there can be no improvements in agricultural productivity and food security. Countries that have been able to achieve and sustain food security are those that have invested in agricultural productivity improvements. Burkina Faso, for instance, undertook major reforms in macroeconomic and sectoral policies aimed at restoring macroeconomic equilibrium during the 1983 – 1989 period. At that time, a system of expenditure redistribution to allow for the financing of sectoral programmes, including agriculture, was implemented. This was done while adhering to government deficit reduction targets through budget cutting mostly geared towards civil servants salaries (60 percent of the total budget). This exercise resulted in cumulated savings over the 1984 – 1990 period of about CFAF 14 billion, or 4 percent of the CFAF 300 billion cumulated receipts over the same period. This resulted in reduction of the government budget deficit from CFAF 24.5 billion in 1984 to CFAF 4.5 billion in 1985; thus, effectively enabling the financing of the rural sector (FAO, 1996).

6.7 Land and Resource Conservation Programmes
Implementation of various soil conservation measures through the provision of government trucks and food-for-work programmes in Burkina Faso, resulted to increased yields on the degraded soils of the central plateau. This resulted in increased and stabilized production. These measures primarily involved the use of manure and compost and the construction of stone dykes to reduce water runoff.

6.8 Committed Leadership
Committed and competent leadership is crucial in bringing about improvements to peoples’ welfare. For it is leaders who decide on the allocation of a country’s resources. In 1979 a committed leadership in China initiated sweeping reforms in agriculture. The reforms, which included both increased incentives in the form of higher State procurement prices and a series of institutional reforms promoted diversification of the rural economy, production specialization, expansion of rights to land, increased flexibility in employment choice, crop selection in accordance with regional comparative and competitive advantages and enhancement of the role of markets. These reforms have had very far-reaching impact on agricultural growth and productivity in China.

Around the 1970s the leadership in Burkina Faso realizing the vulnerability of agricultural production, implemented a series of macroeconomic reforms and sectoral policies towards soil conservation and water harvesting, new land settlements, household-level income-generation policies and transfers. These measures have been successful in stimulating and sustaining agricultural growth, productivity and food security.

6.9 Poverty Reduction and Pro-poor Policies and Programmes
A major factor behind food security improvement in Costa Rica is the strong policy emphasis on poverty reduction and alleviation. This was achieved through a policy shift away from import substitution and food self-sufficiency in favour of export-driven sustainable growth. Although this practice had the effect of reducing the production of traditional crops, the production and exports of non-traditional crops increased rapidly, thus allowing an increase in per capita imports to nearly 30 percent of total food availability.

Targeted anti-poverty measures in India have greatly reduced vulnerability to famine and improved the status of food security in the country. These measures were aimed at curbing year-to-year variability in food availability amongst the famine vulnerable groups in the country. Thus, policy measures and instruments included, for example, directly targeting groups at greater risk by establishing Integrated Rural Development Programmes; and other related policies targeted at the health and nutrition sectors. Consequently, great achievements in the elimination of famine, prevalence of severe and moderate protein-energy malnutrition were made.

7.0. Recommendations for Improving S&T for Sustainable Development and Food Security

The challenge of achieving and sustaining food security in Africa demands concerted efforts by both developed and developing countries working in partnership towards this common goal. It requires that appropriate international and domestic policies, institutional frameworks and public expenditure patterns be put in place to support specific food security programmes. The specific pro-food security areas and programmes for emphasis will include: science and technology, land, water, and incentive structure for agricultural production.

One of the many challenges confronting African agriculture today is to develop, use, and disseminate appropriate endogenous scientific and technological capacities relevant for improved agricultural productivity and output. Developed countries can help and assist African countries to diffuse the agricultural scientific and technological advancement to enhance food security in the continent. Food aid to African countries is, by definition, a short-term solution. The long-term solution, however, lies in African countries themselves taking the initiative of building the capacities and making the policy initiatives relevant for improved and sustained agricultural productivity, production and food security. The advanced countries and international organizations can help and assist in this direction and in various ways.

In recent years, developed countries have reduced the proportion of public funds directed to assist agricultural development in the developing countries. At the same time, these developed countries have been supporting reform programmes that removed subsidies and other forms of support to farmers in Africa. There is evidence to suggest that many of the countries that have achieved food security have had the backing of government support to create a conducive environment for farmers to take up productive ventures.

Through collaboration and partnership arrangements in research and development amongst research institutes, universities, the private sector, the government, the NGOs community, small-scale farmers, peasant farmers and African governments stand to benefit enormously from the knowledge and experience generated globally. Developed nations can invest in facilities for capacity building of professionals in science and technology and upgrade skills and expertise in areas related to research, training and technology transfer in the agricultural sector in African economies.

In the area of international trade agricultural products from African countries often do not fetch good prices. In addition, restrictive measures are often used in global market to disadvantage African economies. This trend must be reversed by putting in place fair trade arrangements to benefit African countries trading in largely agricultural products and developed countries selling largely industrial goods and services. The African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) arrangements are useful positive steps towards supporting and assisting African countries to make an entry into global markets.

7.1 International Community
The international community through its various organs can assist and help African countries acquire various kind of scientific and technological capability relevant for achieving and upgrading food security. This may be done through the following means:

· Implementing technological transfer policies and programmes such as arranging for patent licensing, apprenticeship in food security projects abroad, and on field training attachment of scientists and technological experts in African countries to develop essential and relevant knowledge, skills and expertise for agricultural development and food security.
· Providing financial support to food security programmes and projects in Africa.
· Rectifying terms and conditions of trade in the world market in favour of Africa and creating fair competition among the participating countries.

7.2 Regional Level
The New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) offers ample opportunities for achieving agricultural productivity and food security in the continent. Within NEPAD financing arrangements a number of international, continental and country level programmes and projects to support scientific and technological capabilities relevant for achieving, sustaining and upgrading food security may be designed and executed. NEPAD may in particular assist and help African countries in:

· Challenging leaders in the continent to develop appropriate food security programmes and projects with financial commitments.
· Interfacing with the international community to provide resources to those countries with promising food security programmes and projects together with adherence to good governance and the principles of human right.
· Promoting and assisting financially and otherwise, regional and country level science and technology centres of excellence that target at agricultural productivity and sustainable food security.
· Designing appropriate mechanisms by which African countries will be required to contribute to sustainable food security programmes.
· Establishing a mechanism to monitor and benchmark global developments and scientific and technological advances and continuously evaluate their implications on the process of agricultural transformation, especially in relation to export development

7.3 National Level
National governments in Africa have an overriding responsibility and duty to achieve and sustain food security within their countries in order to ensure that each member of their society has adequate food at all times. Innovative and competent leadership is highly required in taking up strategic change management roles to improve food security through developing, managing, implementing, monitoring and evaluating food security programmes and projects. Towards this end, African governments are advised to do the followings:

· Invest heavily in critical agricultural science and technology and rural development, including energy, education, research and development, and extension services.
· Undertake appropriate macroeconomic and financial reforms to support agriculture, the rural sector, and food security.
· Encourage programmes and projects that will create off-farm employment and agricultural growth.
· Implement measures to build regional communications and transport networks, institutions and services relevant for achieving rural development and food security.
· Put in place appropriate measures for environment conservation and replenish depleted lands.
· Conduct research on food security and embark on relevant institutional support.

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