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GENDER ISSUES

A. The concept "gender and development" gained currency approximately ten years ago. Development agencies, government and inter-governmental institutions slowly adopted it in part because empowerment of women was ill understood and confused with "women and development". Governments erroneously believed that by creating a ministry responsible for women's affairs, they had solved the problem of inequality between women and men.

The gender and development approach entails an unflagging search for equity between men and women when considering or implementing activity that has impact on the life of a community and involves groups of people. This approach is based on the principle that no development activity be it technical, financial, administrative or political, is by itself neutral. Designers and managers of development convey their views on the roles and status of men and women, consciously or unconsciously reproducing their attitudes in the activities for which they are responsible.

In many situations, the views of policy makers, technicians and administrators of development on the role and status of women in society are tinged with discrimination because they emanate from patriarchal or Judeo-Christian traditions. Underlying the "women and development" paradigm is a discriminatory tone because leaders and technicians design programmes meant specifically for women without considering the interdependence between the roles of men and women

Gender and Development approach consists of applying a non-discriminatory approach to men and women in defining or managing community participation or the impact of a programme on a given community

A. Questions related to women are approached horizontally or transversally within ECA. This entails a simultaneous consideration of men and women as beneficiaries of development programmes. Design, formulation, follow-up and evaluation of all activities carried out by ECA takes this as starting point.

ECA’s human resources management reflects the principle of equity between female and male staff allowing all employees to have equal opportunities.

A. It is true that in most of Africa, the initiative for action to educate and involve women and young girls came from religious missions established the colonial period. At the time, "female activities" carried out by feminist activists were centred on the modernization of maternal and domestic functions of women.

Since the first World Conference on Women held in Mexico-City in 1975, the question of the status and role of women in society and in development programmes has taken a universal dimension. Americans, Africans, Europeans and Asians are aware of the marginalization of women and have been searching together for ways and means to combating it.

Strategic searches have led feminists from developing countries, with the solidarity of their counterparts in the industrialized world, to recommend the following approaches successively: the promotion of women, the integration of women in the development process; women and development; and finally, gender and development.

The concept of gender seems to be the most universally shared in terms of the unbalanced differentiation of the roles of men and women; all societies, African, American, Asian and European, draw on their traditions for behaviours and norms to justify inequality between men and women.

The approach to development problems, policies, strategies and programmes, from the point of view of gender, consists of correcting these norms which perpetuate inequality and injustice between men and women.

A. Empowerment is the process of building self-reliance and the capacity to promote and enhance societal welfare. The concept of the empowerment of women therefore views women not as dependent, vulnerable and disadvantaged, but as a category of people who are capable of taking control of their own lives by defining their needs and the strategies to fulfil them.

Gender equality, on the other hand, is the state of men and women being at par in all aspects of life.

Empowerment is a central strategy in achieving gender equality. It enables women to take an equal place with men and to participate equally in the development process in order to achieve control over the factors of production on an equal basis with men.

Women empowerment entails collective mobilization to overcome institutionalized discrimination. It is also predicated on problem-solving skills, viable organizations, and solidarity among the actors and an enabling environment.

A. Women have had a long history of marginalization in all aspects of socio-economic life. Their access to political and economic power lags behind men at all levels including areas where they are the majority.

In 1994:

. Only 10 countries in Africa had more than 10 per cent women representation at the ministerial level;

. In Sub-Sahara Africa, average women representation at parliamentary level was 8 per cent;

. In North Africa, average women representation at parliamentary level was 4 per cent;

. Only 12 countries in the region had women representation in local councils;

. Only 7 countries in Africa had women mayors in rural municipalities.

Equality in power sharing is necessary for the empowerment of women. Yet socialization and culture legitimize women's subordination while de jure discrimination is institutionalized in inequitable property laws and inheritance rights.

To correct the impact of the long history of marginalization entails a long protracted process. The process must be founded on political will to formulate gender-responsive, equitable policies, and ensure the necessary resources for their implementation. It can be accelerated, however, through affirmative action as a corrective measure for the gaps that have been created over the years of marginalization and discrimination. It is therefore both a compensatory measure for past injustices and an accelerator for the process of equitable development.

A. Several international legal instruments have been ratified by governments with a view to safeguarding the civil, legal, work-related, religious etc rights of men and women. They guarantee all people equal rights irrespective of sex, race, religion, country and/or ethnic origin etc.

Women's human and legal rights include all the rights that are protected by the international legal instruments as stated above, and other rights related to their biological make-up as females, which are protected by additional human and legal instruments. These include their reproductive rights, i.e. the right to control their sexuality, fertility and protect their health; as well as protection from gender-based violence at home, in the community, at the work place and in situations of conflict.

Despite the existence of comprehensive women's human and legal rights, the world is replete with disproportionate examples of women denied equal rights to land, property, mobility, education employment opportunities, shelter, food etc. Similarly they are denied the right to manage, control and care for the health of their bodies and reproductive functions. They also routinely suffer violence in the name of tradition and culture.

A. The proponents of gender examine the system of roles and relationships between men and women that are determined by society in the contexts of its culture and tradition, and socio-economic conditions in the development process. They also examine the differential impact of the gender roles and relationships as socially constructed on individuals, society and the development process.

Such analysis often reveals inequities and inequalities between women and men in the construction of gender roles and relationships, which undermine individual and societal welfare as well as the goal of attaining sustainable development. Subsequently, they propose strategies for promoting gender responsive development and justice. Sometimes this requires change in attitude, and modification or even eradication of some cultural and traditional practices. Such changes are likely to enrich the culture and render it more dynamic and sustainable as it caters for the welfare of all its members.

There is growing consensus that sustainable development can be attained only through inclusive and equitable efforts, taking into consideration the interdependence of economic, social, cultural, and environmental factors. In this context, the full participation all individuals in all aspects of societal life must be ensured. Economic growth is thus regarded as a means for enabling members of society to make the best use of their potential capabilities.

Q. Why do women in Africa remain largely under-represented at all levels of decision making?

A. Despite the movement towards liberalization across the continent, in Africa, women’s representation in parliament stands at only 11 per cent, far below the 30 per cent target for 1995 set by the UN Economic and Social Council. Contributory factors is the unequal and limited education for girls and women that prevents them from realizing much of their potential, disproportionate division of labour that limits women’s participation and limits their life choices, gender stereotyping, and the social construction of decision making that excludes women.

A. Efforts by governments and non-governmental organisations aim to increase the number of women in national and local government decision-making positions. The new constitution in Uganda provides for a minimum of one woman parliamentarian for each administrative district, and one third of local government representatives be women. Tanzania and Namibia have also established quotas to increase women’s representation. In South Africa, the African National Congress, the ruling party, has reserved 30 per cent of its parliamentary and 50 per cent of local government seats for women. Mozambique and Seychelles have also made some progress towards increasing women’s representation. Organizations in Botswana, Uganda, Zambia, Kenya and other countries are making participation in the public arena a key issue for women and supporting women who to contest elective office. These efforts been remain largely election oriented and limited to elective offices and do not extend to other critical decision making areas.

A. There is an emerging international consensus on women’s rights. African states have appended their signatures to the African charter on Human Rights, and the Regional Platform of Action. African governments have ratified all conventions dealing with human rights including those of women. Unfortunately there is a big gap between the provisions of law and practice. Laws are either not systematically enforced or structural and procedural obstacles prevent the majority of women from fully enjoying their rights. Inheritance and land rights discriminate against women and harmful practices to women and girls are deeply embedded in some societies. Women are frequently victims of violence. The situation is exacerbated widespread ignorance about the legal rights of women.

A. Failure to effectively promote and protect the human and legal rights of women has contributed to considerable gender difference in access to and opportunity to exert power and influence over political and economic structures. Women are virtually absent or are poorly represented in economic decision-making, including the formulation of financial, monetary, commercial and other policies as well as tax and rules governing pay. There is also vast difference in women’s and men’s access to and participation in political structures and processes at national, local and community levels.

A. Many governments in Africa have already taken some steps to better promote and protect the rights of women. Constitutional provisions in South Africa, Namibia contain specific provisions on the fundamental rights of women and prohibit discrimination on the basis of sex. Some countries have legislative reforms that seek to address the endemic problem of violence against women and discrimination and to provide women’s inheritance rights.

NGOs are implementing programmes to promote legal literacy and awareness of women’s human and legal rights among women and men at community level. They are also involved in the promotion of women’s participation in politics through civic education and selective training of female prospective candidates.

A. Decentralization and devolution of power from the central government to local government presents significant opportunities for women to participate in decision-making processes at local levels as they aim to increase the participation of people at grass roots levels in decisions and policies that impact on them. It follows that if women have greater access to policy formulation with respect to delivery of services, they are better able to ensure that service delivery is responsive to their needs. The same applies to development expenditure. Local control allows greater input from women.

A. Despite the opportunities decentralization offers to women, numerous challenges exist that must be overcome. First, there is the cultural factor. Many African societies have an established dichotomy between public and private spheres. Politics and participation in the development process is often deemed public sphere, out of bounds to women. There is also a question of women’s limited command over resources and skills necessary for them to navigate the murky waters of politics. This has to be addressed and requires long-term strategies to solve.

Issues: The Role of Women in Africa’s Economic Development

A. Women’s participation in development is essential not only for achieving social justice but also for reducing poverty. Gender equality is not only a matter of social justice; it is also good economics. Women produce as much as 80 per cent of the food in some African countries.

Studies have shown that investing in women—in education, health, family planning, access to land, inputs, and extension – is an important part of development strategy as well as a matter of social justice.

Investing in women speeds economic development by raising productivity and promoting the more efficient use of resources; it produces significant social returns, improving child survival and reducing fertility; and it has considerable intergenerational payoffs.

A. Globalization is a process through which finance, investment, production is not confined by national boundaries or national interests and is characterized by global mobility of capital and transnational networks of production units. The process has been facilitated by new technologies in communication, informatics and transportation, greater liberalization of trade and investment, regional integration on an expanded and intensified scale and the expanding role of the World Trade Organization (WTO).

Globalization has obvious benefits for the developing countries as increased investment in them almost invariably increases their productive capacity, improves livelihoods and significantly reduces the incidence of poverty. As the productive capacities of developing countries expand, employment opportunities for women increase. Evidence clearly shows that new investment in developing economies has increased the demand for women’s paid labour. One third of all industrial sector workers in developing countries are women. Moreover, it is now likely that as the supply of male labour for certain occupations shrinks, women will gain entry into those areas that have hitherto been the preserve of men.

Q. What negative impact could globalization have on women in Africa?

A. Globalization can exacerbate inequality. Footloose capital has a history of evaporating as quickly as it came. Liberalized trade regimes often lead to cheap imports that may overwhelm local industry leading to loss of jobs. This has happened in Kenya and South Africa where women making textiles and handicrafts have simply been driven from the market by cheap imports.

A potential for globalization to reinforce gender discrimination does exist. Increased participation of women in the labour market does not necessarily lead to an improvement in the welfare of women, or a resolution of traditional problems such as lower wages for equal work. A common pattern of development has been an improvement of conditions in the formal labour sector, while the informal sector, where women tend to be over-represented, is prevented from reaping the benefits by those already employed.

Q. Does globalization promise benefits for the African continent?

A. One of the many concerns over globalization is the view that some countries and may miss out completely. African countries are already marginalized, even though they are nominally connected to the global economy. Successful participation in the global economy will entail the strengthening of the links between Africa and the rest of the world, particularly through information and communication technologies. The risk further integration poses is increased marginalization of less skilled workers, including much of the female workforce.

A. The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the key indicator in the System of National Accounts (SNA). The GDP measures the value of goods and services produced in an economy in a given period of time, usually one year, while the Gross National Product (GNP) measures the value of goods and services owned by residents of a country including remittances from abroad. GDP is used as the major indicator of how big an economy is and the rate at which it is growing. Per capita GNP is widely used as an indicator of the level of development of a country, or the well being of its citizens.

The GDP does not measure or add up goods and services produced that do not show up in the market nor does it take into account the informal sectors because of data gathering problems. It is mainly marketed production that is aggregated.

It is quite likely that well over two-thirds of activities of millions of women, boys and girls as well as men in Africa is unrecorded. This information poverty makes invisible the livelihoods of millions and keeps them outside the reach of policy. The million of daily transactions at the micro-level are not counted in the system of national accounts. These are the millions of daily activities that women carry out, caring for and nurturing children, preparing food, gathering fuelwood, drawing water, tending the sick, educating the young and sustaining social relationships.

A. Time use studies –These are useful in clarifying the amount of work done by women. The UNDP Human Development Report of 1995 reviews evidence on time use for 31 sample countries, of which 9 are developing. In all forms of work, women spent 53 per cent and men 47 per cent of the total time. But in the productive-marketed sector, women spent only 34 per cent of their time, with men spending as much as 76 per cent of their time, while in the unpaid economy, women contributed 66 per cent of their time and men only 24 per cent of their time. The gap is much wider in rural areas of developing countries.

Satellite accounts—Satellite accounts can be constructed by assigning monetary value to the time budgets of the informal unrecorded economy. UNDP estimates in 1995 that women’s invisible non-monazited production amounts to $US11, 000 billion a year, equivalent to an extra 48 per cent of the world GDP.

Input-output analysis – The World Bank’s social sector analysis already uses social sector input-output analysis and household sector account. These could be extended to include unpaid household production of social sector services. Researchers from different institutions are using this technique to estimate Gross Household Product, which includes expenditure of time as well as money.

In addition to aggregation of time-use data for more gender sensitive policy formulation at macro-level, there is need for other complementary gender-disaggregated data to analyse the structure and operations of the economy.

A. The budget is most important economic policy instrument of government and it is not gender neutral. Gender inequalities cannot be addressed incidentally through supposedly gender-neutral policies and financial aggregates. National budgets ignore gender differences. By not addressing these differences, gender blind budgets affect men and women differently and inadvertently tend to reinforce gender inequalities. Gender-sensitive budgets can facilitate engendered macro-economic policies, which will help promote growth and efficiency, reduce poverty and produce significant social returns.

A. In Beijing, governments committed themselves to a number of measures aimed at improving the material conditions of women. The primary responsibility of governments in implementing the strategic objectives of the Beijing Platform of Action is to review systematically how women benefit from public sector expenditures and adjusting budgets to ensure equality of access to public sector expenditures, both for enhancing productive capacity and for meeting social needs. To create gender-sensitive national budgets, governments must institute gender diaggregated assessments of budget priorities to determine current problems, and then work with all government departments and NGOs to equalize the effects of public expenditures.

The first example of this is the Women’s Budget Statement initiated by the Australian Government in 1984,. The statement developed a mechanism to analyse the impact of the budget on women and encouraged government departments to consider the needs and circumstances of women in the development of new policies and the allocation of resources. Based on the Australian precedent, South Africa produced a Women Budget in 1996 that analyses the probable impact of the national budget on women across all sectors. South Africa’s first gender-aware budget statement was included in budget documentation on the Budget Day March 1998.

The Commonwealth Secretariat is assisting governments incorporate gender awareness in micro-economic planning through a project that focuses on the national budgetary processes. A series of policy options have been designed to assist governments that wish to mainstream gender into budgetary policies and procedures.

A. Micro-financing schemes are today considered a means of combating poverty in all countries of the South. Since poverty is a matter of exclusion from markets and traditional sources of finance, micro-credit schemes become alternative development finance sources and can reach a substantial part of the population.

Micro-credit and micro-finance generally enable people to develop their sense of initiative, enhance their capabilities, empower themselves within the family and community and enhance their security and self-reliance. People using micro-credit operate in sectors as varied as service, trade, production and processing in rural and urban areas.

In Africa, micro-financing schemes address the problem of access to resources, participation in the economy and are taken into account in national policymaking, considering as they do the skill and resource levels of customers and their socio-cultural environment.

Q. What has been Africa’s experience with micro-credit and micro-financing schemes in relation to women?

A. Micro-credit schemes in Africa have operated under difficult conditions emanating out of unfavourable policy environment characterised by inflexible regulatory and legislative frameworks (the French speaking African countries in particular) that do not encourage the schemes to flourish.

Women are the largest population group that uses micro-credit schemes, accounting as they do for more than 70 per cent of the active population in the informal sector and the majority is illiterate. Women in Africa generally have little financial support to conduct their economic activities, they have little training in business management, and have little input into economic policy formulation.

Credit and business support schemes to support women suffer many drawbacks. Little is known about them at regional and international levels and their track records are poor. Few studies have been conducted to determine the relevance of the tools and techniques used and their impact on beneficiaries.

A. The conference recommended that existing credit channels be strengthened, participatory evaluations of various credit schemes and programmes undertaken and best practices documented and disseminated. The capacity of training institutions would have to be strengthened.

A. Working groups discussed and recommended that Africa governments include a gender perspective in national accounts. To accomplish this goal governments will be required to extend data coverage to neglected areas, conduct time use surveys, sensitise statisticians and raise their capacity to mainstream a gender approach, and sensitise the public through the media on the necessity to collect and keep such data.

Q. How does the ECA intend to follow up on the recommendations?

A. The conference charged ECA with establishing partnerships to mainstream gender in key institutions and mechanisms such as the Co-ordinating Committee on African Statistical Development (CASD), created to assist in the implementation of the Plan of Action for African Statistical Development. CASD provides a framework for partnership that includes members states, African statistical training institutions and major donors. The Conference recommended the establishment of a CASD Task Force on Gender in National Accounts and other data. The African Centre for Women (ACW) will continue its sensitisation and advocacy roles and will assist to build capacity to further gender mainstreaming.

A. Low capital investment, a small number of employees and international competition are factors hindering the development of women’s enterprises. Lack of access to credit, legal and fiscal difficulties, restrictive administrative procedures and limited management experience, are others.

A. In Africa more women than men work on land, providing up to 80-90 per cent of the labour in subsistence production, and over 70 per cent in cash-crop production. Women are also conspicuous in the management and protection of urban and rural environments yet they suffer discrimination in all matters relating to land and property ownership. The percentage of women owning land is a very low in most African countries: in Uganda 7 per cent, in Kenya 3 per cent, in Zimbabwe 5 per cent, in Botswana 30 per cent.

Limited access to land ownership by women undermines their productivity and response to macro- and micro-economic incentives. The Beijing Platform for Action recognizes that this discrimination is the single most critical factor in the perpetuation of gender inequity and feminization of poverty.

Q. What initiatives address women’s lack of access to land?

A. Several African governments have formulated new laws governing land ownership, use and management. The laws do not always address the problem of user and ownership land rights or the interests of women, smallholder subsistence farmers and pastoralists. In Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, and South Africa, advocacy groups for the land rights of the poor, women, smallholder subsistence farmers and pastoralists have emerged. The groups have undertaken action research, public debates and workshops, and direct lobby and advocacy activities on behalf of these groups of people.

Q. What strategies and actions did the ECA 40^th Anniversary Conference identify as necessary to promote and protect access to and ownership of land by women?

A. The conference recommended that governments in collaboration with women develop land policies that take into account needs and rights of women within the framework of international and regional instruments such as the African Charter for Human and People’s Rights, the African Platform for Action, the Beijing Platform of Action.

The conference recommended that African governments create forums for national consultation to resolve the issue of gender-equitable access to land in conjunction with other factors of production. ECA will assist the process by holding sub-regional policy advocacy workshops for policy makers on the issues of women’s land rights

A. Peace and conflict resolution is an important issue because women bear the brunt of the effects of war and social dislocation. For a variety of reasons, including forced conscription or voluntary engagement in combat, women and children invariably constitute a majority of the population of refugees and internally displaced persons. This is one of the very visible results of the disproportionate impact of war and conflict on women. War and conflicts generate consequences gender-specific violence, the loss of sustainable livelihoods and the fracturing of social ties and support systems.

During times of crisis women have shown admirable resilience and strength. They have utilized the knowledge and experience they have in conflict prevention, management and resolution at household and community levels to assist in peace-making efforts. In spite of these critical roles and wealth of experience, women are absent from national, sub-regional and regional forums where peace, security and policy decisions are made.

Although governments in Africa made specific commitments at the Fifth African Regional Conference on Women in Dakar, Senegal, and at the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, China, there is no significant increase in the participation of women in national, sub-regional and regional mechanisms for conflict prevention and resolution. Conflict prevention and management efforts undertaken by the OAU and sub-regional groupings such as IGAD, ECOWAS, and the Great lakes Region, involve countries represented by men, and women’s perspectives are rarely taken into account

A. Since the Beijing Conference, women’s organisations have strengthened their networks to promote peace and prevent conflict. The Pan African Conference on Peace, Gender and Development held in Rwanda, March 1997 concluded with the formation of a network linking women’s peace initiatives throughout Africa. The Federation of African Women’s Peace Networks held its first general assembly during the 1998 session of the UN Commission on the Status of Women. The conference endorsed recommendations to up a regional committee of eminent women leaders to assist OAU in conflict prevention, management and resolution.

The African Women’s Committee on Peace is set begin work in the near future. Efforts by women’s group will not have the desired impact in the absence of efforts to mainstream women in decision making at national and regional levels.

Women’s initiatives to provide peaceful resolution, reconciliation and tolerance through education in countries such as Rwanda and Somalia provide concrete experience on how to build a culture of peace, tolerance and ways of resolving and managing conflict. For the foreseeable future African women peace and conflict resolution groups will depend on the support of the international community.

Q. What role can women play in post-conflict reconstruction, rehabilitation and reconciliation in Africa?

A. A significant number of African countries are merging from periods of strife and armed conflict. The people, political and economics structures of these countries require rehabilitation. The challenges of rehabilitating a traumatized population, reuniting families and communities separated by war, dealing with orphaned and/or militarized children and reconciling different sides of a conflict, are often foremost on the agendas of governments and international organisations grappling with the aftermath of conflict. Rebuilding the economic infrastructure follows closely. While these aspects are truly important, an aspect that is rarely focused on in post-conflict contexts is the presence of windows of opportunities for transformative planning and reforms especially in governance and gender equity. Demographic changes and a weakening of traditional social structures could permit governments to spearhead key reforms in certain areas. In countries where both men and women have engaged in armed struggle, there is often a new respect and understanding of the capabilities of women. Similarly, in countries like Rwanda where women form the majority of the population, there is a clear need to re-examine economic, social, legal and political systems for governance in the light of the new political realities.

Populations in rural areas continue to suffer because of the use of arms that are indiscriminately injurious. There are more than 100 million anti-personnel landmines scattered in 64 countries globally, including several African countries. Women and girls, as agriculturists and providers of food, water and fuelled, become very vulnerable to injury from landmines.

Q. What initiatives have been undertaken to involve women in post-conflict reconstruction, rehabilitation and reconstruction?

A. A number of African governments have set up mechanisms to establish individual accountability for human rights abuses during conflict situations, as an important step towards reconciliation. Countries emerging from armed conflict have endeavoured to build upon their experiences for a sustained role for women in national political life.

Under the Beijing Platform for Action, many governments, including African governments, committed themselves to a total ban on anti-personnel landmines. Important progress was made on this in Ottawa, Canada, in 1997 when 122 countries, excluding the United States of America, signed the Ottawa Convention.