ASSESSMENT OF PROGRESS ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA SINCE RIO (1992)
Report prepared by the Expanded Joint Secretariat for the preparation of the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development
African Preparatory Conference for the World Summit
on Sustainable Development
Nairobi, 15-18 October 2001
ABBREVIATIONS
UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development
NGO Non-governmental Organization
CBD Community Based Organization
WSSD World Summit on Sustainable Development
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on climate Change
UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
GDP Gross Domestic Product
OAU Organization of African Unity
AU African Union
WCED World Commission on Environment and Development
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
ODS Ozone Depleting Substances
CFCs Chlorofluorocarbon
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization
GEF Global Environment Facility
AMU Arab Maghreb Union
COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa
IGAD Intergovernmental Authority on Development
ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States
CILSS Inter-state Committee to Combat Drought in the Sahel
CSD Commission on Sustainable Development
UNGASS United Nations General Assembly Special Session
IPF Intergovernmental Panel on Forests
IFF Intergovernmental Forum on Forests
UNFF United Nations Forum on Forests
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
SIDS Small Island Developing States
WEO World Environment Organization
GIWA Global International Waters Assessment
POPs Persistent Organic Pollutants
UNECA United Nations Economic Commission for Africa
GNP Gross National Product
ODA Official Development Assistance
FDI Foreign Direct Investment
HIPC Heavily Indebted Poor Countries
LDC Least Developed Countries
WTO World Trade Organization
UNHCR United Nations High Commission for Refugees
SADC Southern African Development Community
UNIFEM United Nations Development Fund for Women
ILO International Labour Orgisation
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund
WHO World Health Organization
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
RIAA Regional Implementation Annex for Africa
COP Conference of Parties
NAP National Action Programme
SRAP Sub-regional Action Programme
RAP Regional Action Programme
RCU Regional Coordination Unit
AMCEN African Ministerial Conference on the Environment
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
CDM Clean Development Mechanisms
ICT Information and Communication Technology
MVA Manufacturing Value-added
TRIPs Trade-Related Intellectual Property Rights
OECD Organisation for Economic Commission for Development
DMC Drought Monitoring Centre
ACMAD African Centre of Meteorological Applications for Development
ELMS Environmental and Land Management Sector (SADC)
WSSD World Summit on Sustainable Development
TABLE OF CONTENT
STRUCTURE OF REPORT
- The Road from Rio to Johannesburg
- Environment and development in Africa (1992-2002): An overview
- Africa on the eve of the WSSD
Environmental factors
Social and economic factorsII THE 1992 RIO AGENDA: 10 YEARS DOWN THE LINE
- Conservation and management of resources for sustainable development
Atmosphere:
Land and sustainable agriculture
Drought and desertification
Biodiversity and forests
Marine and coastal ecosystems and their resources
Water resources and quality
Toxic chemicals and hazardous wastes
- Social and economic dimensions
Financial resource flows to Africa.
Trade and environment
Globalization
Infrastructure
Governance, human rights, conflict prevention and post-conflict peace building
The state of poverty
The poverty and environment nexus
Education
Provision of health care
Sustainable human settlements
Integrating environmental concerns into key policies, plans and decision making
- The role of major groups
- The implementation of the Rio conventions
Ratification and accession
Streamlining national reporting for the Rio conventions
Promoting collaboration amongst the scientific and technical bodies of the conventions
Harmonization/rationalization of policy instruments- Global Environment Facility (GEF) resources
- Environmentally sound technologies
IV. PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS IN IMPLEMENTING AGENDA 21 AND THE LESSONS LEARNT
- Constraints faced by the region
Lack of the anticipated financial resources
The debt burden
Poverty
Governance, conflicts and civil unrest
Inadequate access to international markets
Lack of progress on the agreed transfer of technology
Inefficient domestic production
Inadequate health care services and HIV/AIDS
Increase in the frequency of natural disasters
The expanding digital divide
Unsustainable management and utilization of natural resources
Energy insufficiency- Impact of Agenda 21 on sustainable development in the region
Establishment of Local Agenda 21
Harmonizing Africa's position on multilateral agreements
- International environmental governance
- The role of the African Union in dealing with the region's crises
Poverty eradication
Education
Health care: infectious diseases
Mobilizing resources for sustainable development
Reversing environmental deterioration, including the sound management of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and their resources
Promoting communication
Promoting trade
Promoting the role of civil society
International environmental governance
Promoting peace, democracy and human rights
ANNEXES
Table 1. Flow of ODA and private capital to African countries and the debt crisis
Table 2. Poverty indicators for African countries
Table 3. Occurrences of natural disasters in Africa: January 1992 - July 2001
Table 4. Survival: progress setbacks of African countries
Table 5. Leading health crises and challenges of African countries
Table 6. Status of ratification of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol 52
Table 7. Status of ratification of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
Table 8. Status of ratification of the United Nations Conventions to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
Table 9. Priority issues proposed by the African sub-regional meetings for the WSSD
The Assessment Report starts with the introduction which briefly reviews the Rio outputs including Agenda 21 as well as providing an over view of the environmental and social economic factors prevailing in Africa on the eve of the World Summit on Sustainable Development.
Chapter II discusses in detail the status of selected Agenda 21 issues and some programme areas as well as providing some achievements during the past decade. The Chapter is divided into three sections, namely conservation and management of natural resources, social and economic dimensions and the role of major groups. Some emerging issues such as combating the HIV/AIDS pandemic and globalisation are also addressed.
Chapter III reviews a number of international legal instruments and mechanisms with emphasis on post Rio Conventions which were put in place for the implementation of Agenda 21. The Global Environment Facility (GEF) which was designated as the principal interim financial mechanism for certain global environmental issues is also briefly reviewed. The transfer to Africa of environmentally sound technology for enhancement of sustainable development is also highlighted.
The constraints encountered by the region in implementing Agenda 21 are briefly highlighted in Chapter IV. Some of the constraints and challenges were of global nature while others had their origins in Africa. Also highlighted in this chapter is the impact of Agenda 21 on sustainable development in the region, including the role of AMCEN in harmonizing Africa's position on multilateral agreements.
Chapter V outlines the new development agenda for further implementation of Africa's priorities in the context of WSSD process as proposed by the meetings of the regional economic integration organizations (ECOWAS/CILSS, SADC, ECCAS, AMU and IGAD/COMESA).
A. The Road from Rio to Johannesburg
1. At its 55th Session, the General Assembly (GA) in Resolution 55/199, of December 2000, decided to convene the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), to be held in Johannesburg, South Africa, in September 2002. The overall objective of the Summit is to reinvigorate at the highest political level, the global commitment to sustainable development, to a North-South partnership, and to forging international solidarity to accelerate the implementation of Agenda 21. The preparatory process includes the assessment and review of progress made in the implementation of Agenda21, the major accomplishments and lessons learnt, the main constraints, new challenges and opportunities and proposals on ways of strengthening the institutional framework.
2. It could be said that the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) changed, in a far-reaching way, the face of the environment and development landscape, and institutions. UNCED generated five formal documents: treaties on climate change and biodiversity, a statement on non-binding forest principles, the Rio Declaration and the action programme, Agenda 21.
3. Agenda 21 addressed the pressing problems of its day and aimed to prepare the world for the challenges of this century. It reflects a global consensus on development and environment cooperation. Its successful implementation is first and foremost the responsibility of Governments. National strategies, plans, policies and processes are crucial in achieving this. International cooperation should support and supplement such national efforts. Regional and subregional organizations are also called upon to contribute to this effort. The broadest public participation and the active involvement of non- governmental organizations (NGOs) and other groups are also encouraged. The implementation of Agenda 21 was to be carried out by the various actors, according to the different situations, capacities and priorities of countries and regions.
4. Agenda 21 covers the broad field of sustainable development. The action programme was envisaged as the tool for implementing the principles enunciated in the Rio Declaration. It offers clearly articulated objectives, targets, strategies, activities, costings and an allocation of institutional roles. Agenda 21 has a preamble that is important in setting its contents. A key clause in the preamble states that Agenda 21 "reflects a global consensus and political commitment at the highest level on development and environment cooperation." The preamble further notes the disparities between the rich and poor and urges nations to work together in a global partnership in order to achieve sustainable development. In order to assure a safer and more prosperous future, environment and development issues need to be dealt with in a balanced manner. The 40 Chapters of Agenda 21 are divided into four sections:
5. Although Agenda 21 is divided neatly into four sections, issues no longer divide easily into social or security, economic or environmental, regional or global, public or private categories. The socio-economic issues, for example, continue to undergo major shifts. The forces of globalization have brought about a growing awareness of the linkages among peace and human security, poverty alleviation, environmental protection and human rights, including gender equality.
B. Environment and development in Africa (1992-2002): An overview
6. African countries entered the 1990s with major political and economic problems, that were manifest in declining agricultural and industrial productivity, sporadic famines, increasing environmental degradation, levels of malnutrition and debt, declining capacity to service debt, social unrest, collapsing infrastructure and the disintegration of public institutions. These problems are forcing most African countries to search for ways of renewing their economies and accessing the paths towards sustainable development. Finding long-term solutions to the problems of Africa has become increasingly critical.
C. Africa on the eve of the WSSD
7. Ten years after Rio, the African region faces a wide range of environmental opportunities and challenges. Since Rio, the state of the African environment has continued to decline. Environmental degradation has largely been associated with the destruction of natural resources and ecosystems, including forests, water, marine and coastal resources, as well as the erosion of soils and pollution of air. The region, however, depends largely on natural resources for economic growth and sustainable development.
8. In general, progress has been made in some countries in terms of institutional development, international consensus building, participatory processes, and private sector actions, as well as in curbing pollution and slowing the rate of resource degradation. Recent analyses, however, show that trends are worsening. On the eve of the WSSD, the region is plagued with serious environmental problems, some of which are due to global developments and changing conditions, while others are internally orchestrated.
9. The region is losing its natural resources at relatively rapid rates in comparison with other regions of the world. Africa is losing about 1.3 million hectares of forest every year. Its wildlife population of rich and unique species of animals and plants is under increasing pressure. An estimated 500 million hectares have been affected by soil degradation since 1950, including as much as 65 per cent of agricultural land. Air and water pollution in the region is increasing.
10. Persistent poverty in Africa has contributed to accelerated degradation of natural resources. The reduction in agricultural productivity has, thus, hampered efforts to achieve sustainable development. Africa is the only continent in which poverty is expected to rise during the 21 century.
11. Inadequate and unsafe water supplies continue to affect an increasing number of people in the region, aggravating problems of ill health and food insecurity among the poor. Fourteen countries are subject to water stress or water scarcity, and a further 11 will join them by 2025.
12. Energy is required for individual needs as well as for key sectors such as industry, transport, information and communication technology. The region lacks the technology and financial resources to develop the full potential of its energy resources.
13. As a follow-up to UNCED, some African countries established institutions to manage the environment, for example, secretariats charged specifically with coordinating the implementations of Agenda 21 and other UNCED outputs. National environmental plans and policies were drawn up and enacted, for example, in areas such as pollution monitoring, the conservation of natural resources, population control, education and training, land, and sanitation, forest and health. More recently, some countries have established committees to enhance the relationship between trade and the environment and ensure that they are mutually supportive.
14. A number of countries have enacted laws on Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), and established environmental codes for the sustainable use of water and forests, the protection of biodiversity and the management of solid wastes.
15. Ninety six per cent of African countries have ratified the Rio conventions (the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) and the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)) and have taken some steps to implement them. Forty-six African countries are Parties to the Vienna Convention and forty-seven are Parties to the Montreal Protocol.
16. African economies have declined and in some cases are near collapse, both in quantitative and qualitative terms. The rate of economic growth in at least half of the region has stayed below 2 per cent per annum - measured in terms of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) - while the human population has grown by an average of 4 per cent per annum. Economic goods and services have been relatively inaccessible for many African households. Rural populations have continued to draw their economic needs directly from natural resources and fragile ecological systems.
17. Africa, unlike other regions of the world, continues to receive extremely low foreign private capital investment. Currently, almost 95 per cent of the financial resources used in Africa are from domestic sources. Ways and means must be found to increase the amount of external funding for Africa.
18. Natural resource utilization in Africa is driven by the demand of Governments to earn foreign exchange from exports of primary commodities. Government policies and programmes have, thus, encouraged more intensive cultivation of existing lands and the opening up of more marginal lands.
19. In 1998, the external debt of sub-Saharan Africa stood at over $US230 billion (the debt for the whole of Africa was $US324.7 billion). Of 52 African countries (excluding Eritrea because of non-availability of data), the World Bank classified 32 of them as severely indebted and 11 as moderately indebted. During the last decade, a substantial proportion of Africa's export earnings has been used for debt repayment, resulting in an inability to implement sustainable development strategies.
20. Globalization poses new and major challenges in Africa. Despite the great opportunities globalization offers, its benefits are unevenly distributed and yet its costs are borne by all. The benefits of globalization are concentrated in a small number of countries. Increased regional integration/cooperation is essential to promote and develop African economic markets, support economic growth and strengthen Africa's negotiating position with other regional groupings and transnational corporations.
21. By international standards, a poor person is one who has to survive on one dollar per day, or less. Using this definition, there are, therefore, many people in sub-Saharan Africa who are very poor. In rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa, the incidence of poverty is acute and widespread with about 60 per cent of the population living below the poverty line. The Millennium Summit resolved to reduce poverty by half by the year 2015. In order to achieve this in the next 13 years, GDP growth rates will need to increase substantially. It will require the investment of 33 per cent of GDP to attain a 7 per cent annual growth - to be financed by both domestic savings and foreign inflows.
22. The HIV/AIDS pandemic threatens the lives of millions of Africans, as well as the economic and political viability of many States of the region. Africa's development and governance efforts will be in jeopardy unless effective strategies are put in place to halt and reverse the present trends.
23. It has been estimated that malaria and tuberculosis kill some 1 - 1.5 million people in the region per year. Measles and water-borne infections also take a huge toll of African children. Human diseases not only cause human suffering, but they also contribute to impoverishment through reduced labour productivity and the diversion of financial resources to procure treatment.
24. Since 1970, more than 30 wars have been fought in Africa, the vast majority of them intra-State in origin. In 1996 alone, 14 of the 53 countries of Africa were afflicted by armed conflicts, accounting for more than half of war-related deaths worldwide and resulting in more than 8 million refugees, returnees and displaced persons. Achieving durable peace and social stability in the region is of paramount importance. Without these basic conditions, the achievement of sustainable development will continue to be illusory. Good governance, regional cooperation and active mechanisms for conflict prevention and resolution are key requirements in achieving these ends.
25. Many countries of the region are undergoing rapid urbanization, with the associated increasing levels of air and water pollution, and accumulating impacts on human health.
26. Trade liberalization in Africa and the pressure on many of the countries to service their foreign debts have exacerbated environmental degradation, in the absence of formulated and implemented appropriate regulatory policies and laws that are environmentally sensitive.
27. The Summit of African Heads of State and Government, convened in Lusaka, Zambia, in July 2001, established the African Union (AU) to deal with the continent's crises in the political, economic and social fields, as a replacement for the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), set up in 1963.
28. The Lusaka Summit adopted the New African Initiative, which is a pledge by African leaders, based on common vision and shared conviction, of their duty to eradicate poverty and establish their respective countries on the path to sustainable development.
29. Prior to the Rio Summit, for many countries in the region, addressing socio-economic and environmental issues was the monopoly of the State. The Earth Summit and post Rio conferences stressed the need for public participation in formulating and implementing projects. In a number of countries, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) have been integrated into policy-making organs such as national environment advisory committees.
II THE 1992 RIO AGENDA: 10 YEARS DOWN THE LINE
A. Conservation and management of resources for sustainable development
30. The critical socio-economic development problems of Africa are inextricably linked to people, resources and the environment. Thus, environmental conservation has a direct relationship with the structure and functioning of the economy. The Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) states, "... environment is where we live, and development is what we do in attempting to improve our lot within that abode. The two are inseparable."
31. The UNEP Global Environment Outlook 2000 (GEO2000) has drawn attention to the following regional environmental conditions and trends that are likely to worsen during the coming years:
32. GEO 2000 also identified other global and regional environmental conditions and trends that are serious and will deteriorate unless the trends are halted and reversed:
33. Stratospheric ozone is essential for shielding humans, plants and animals from the damaging effects of harmful ultraviolet light. The major ozone - depleting substances (ODS) include, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform and methyl bromide. Under the Montreal Protocol, Governments have agreed to phase out ODS.
34. Although the depletion of the ozone layer is not seen as a major environmental issue in most African countries, the African region is actively implementing the Montreal Protocol. Forty-six African countries are Parties to the Vienna Convention and 47 countries are Parties to the Montreal Protocol.
35. Since 1990, Parties to the Montreal Protocol have been implementing a financial mechanism which includes the Multilateral Fund, to assist developing countries to phase out ODS. Organisations assisting African countries under the Multilateral Fund include the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), UNEP, the United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO), and the World Bank. Between 1993 and 2001, up to $US 150 million were approved by the Executive Committee to phase out ODS in the African region, through the four implementing agencies, but particularly UNDP, UNIDO and UNEP.
36. A major concern of African countries is the dumping by developed countries of obsolete, and the import of new, ODS-based equipment (especially fridges and freezers) from Europe and Asia. The Parties to the Montreal Protocol decided, by decision IX/X that they should set up licensing systems to control the import and export of ODS and ODS-based equipment. African countries need to take urgent measures to ensure that the licensing system is put in place to put a stop to the dumping of such equipment.
Land and sustainable agriculture
37. In Africa, land is a critical resource and the basis for survival. A World Bank report indicates that agriculture contributes 40 per cent of regional GDP and employs more than 60 per cent of the labour force. The degradation of land in the region, therefore, threatens both economic and physical well-being. The key issues associated with the deterioration of land include, escalating soil erosion, declining soil fertility, salinization, soil compaction, overgrazing, deforestation, agrochemical pollution and desertification. Recurrent droughts are also a major factor in the degradation of cultivated land and rangelands in many parts of the region. Although drought increases soil degradation, the latter also intensifies the effects of drought.
38. Soil loss adversely affects soil moisture retention capacity, soil nutrients, soil structure, and fauna and flora. Soil erosion also affects economic sectors such as energy and water supply. Overgrazing reduces vegetation cover and exposes the soil to water and wind erosion. Some African soils are difficult to manage and unfavourable conditions worsen the situation. In other parts of the region, severe sand encroachment results in siltation of irrigation canals, as well as the smothering of croplands, housing, rivers and highways. Flood irrigation may result in salinization. Salinized soils are unproductive and eventually become wet or salty deserts (Barrow, 1991).
39. In many countries of Africa, a combination of the inequitable distribution of land, poor farming methods and unfavourable land tenure and ownership systems has led to the decline in productivity of grazing lands, falling crop yields and diminishing returns from water supplied. Land policies (or lack thereof) and land laws are some of the root causes of land degradation. Many African governments have not responded to the need for participatory approaches in the formulation and implementation of policies and legislation on land and natural resources.
40. Land degradation constrains food production to an average annual increase of only 2 per cent. As this is much lower than the average population growth rate (about 4 per cent), per capita food production has been falling in the region. The World Food Summit, held in Rome, in 1996, emphasized the threat posed to long-term food security by soil degradation. The Rome Declaration stressed the need to increase food production within the framework of natural resource management. The Plan of Action calls for an ongoing effort to eradicate hunger in all countries, with a minimum target of halving the undernourished by 2015. The major instruments and programmes used to promote sustainable agriculture include the Global Environment Facility (GEF) land degradation portfolio and UNEP land and water initiatives in Africa.
41. Nearly two-thirds of Africa is semi arid. The continent is the one most seriously affected by desertification which threatens more than one third of the land area, particularly in the Sudano-Sahelian region, southern Africa and Mediterranean Africa. In northern Africa alone, more than 432 million hectares (57 per cent of total land) are threatened by desertification. Drylands are particularly vulnerable to degradation because they recover very slowly. With a limited supply of water, new soils form very slowly, salts once accumulated tend to stay where they are, while soils that are dry, poorly held together and sparsely vegetated are susceptible to erosion. Although overgrazing has long been considered the primary cause of desertification in the region, it is now thought that rainfall variability and long-term droughts are more important determinants.
42. Poverty is considered to be one of the causes of desertification and its eradication would pave way for sustainable development. There is, therefore, a need to give full support, both financially and politically, to the UNCCD. Its implementation would constitute a major vehicle for alleviating poverty.
43. Since UNCED, a number of countries in the region have made efforts to provide a means for people to express their views on land-use issues. There is still a lack of comprehensive rural policies that combine production, with environmental and rural-welfare objectives. Land resource planning and management requires the participation of different authorities at local and national levels, as well as the private sector.
44. In some countries community based natural resources management plans and biodiversity strategy action plans under the auspices of the regional and international conventions have been put in place. All the five subregions have developed the subregional action programmes (SRAPs) in the context of the Convention to Combat Desertification to mitigate the impacts of drought. Some subregions have prepared resource mobilization strategies to support the implementation of the SRAPs. Most of the subregions are now in the process of developing programmes and projects on the priority areas identified in the SRAPs.
45. The UNCCD is an important instrument for combating desertification and mitigating drought in affected African countries. The subregional intergovernmental organizations are important in its implementation; the Arab Maghreb Union (AMU), Common Market for Eastern & Southern Africa (COMESA), Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS), Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), Inter-State Committee to Combat Drought in the Sahel (CILSS) and South African Development Community (SADC).
46. The African region is well endowed in its diversity and variety of species, habitats and ecosystems. The region is the home of some 50,000 plant species, 1000 mammal species and 1500 bird species (GEO 2000). The region has more than 2000 endemic plant species, and Madagascar alone has more than 300 endemic mammal species (GEO 2000). The wetlands of Africa contain rich biological diversity, including endemic and rare plants and migratory birds. The wealth of fauna and flora includes domesticated agricultural crops, timber, medicinal plants and wildlife species. African economies depend on this rich biological diversity, but recent years have seen rapid and increasing rates of species and habitat destruction and loss.
47. Africa's forests cover some 520 million ha. with the Democratic Republic of Congo alone having more than 20 per cent of the region's forest cover. They constitute more than 17 per cent of global forest resources. Forests play a crucial role in the economies of many African countries, providing timber and industrial material as well as contributing to tourism, recreation and cottage industry. Tropical forests help regulate global climate through the absorption of carbon dioxide. Deforestation and forest degradation continue to occur in the region due to a variety of causes, including demographic pressures, poverty, production and consumption patterns, land tenure patterns and land speculation. Other important factors that contribute to deforestation and forest degradation include, illegal logging, grazing pressures, illegal cultivation, the demand for fuelwood and charcoal, refugee-related problems, oil and mining exploitation, natural climatic events and forest fires. FAO data indicate that the annual rate of deforestation in Africa was 0.7 per cent between 1990 and 1995, with the highest rates being recorded in the moist western parts of the continent. The data also indicate that the rate of afforestation is far less than that of deforestation.
48. Nevertheless, over the past decade many African countries have delineated protected areas with a view to increasing the area of national reserves. One of the objectives of creating protected areas is to save both wildlife and rare endemic genetic material. A few wood exporting companies in the region have used eco-labelling for their exports.
49. The United Nations Forum on Forest: The Forest Principles adopted in Rio concern the management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests. As a result of lack of progress in halting deforestation and the degradation of forests since Rio, and in order to monitor progress on the implementation of UNCED proposals on forest-related issues, the Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) established the Intergovernmental Panel on Forests (IPF) in 1995. In 1997, United Nations General Assembly Special Session (UNGASS) decided to continue the intergovernmental dialogue on forests through the establishment of the Intergovernmental Forum on Forests (IFF) under the CSD. The IFF was mandated to promote and monitor the implementation of the IPF proposals.
50. The IFF at its fourth session, held in New York in January 2000, recommended the establishment of the United Nations Forest Forum (UNFF) to promote the management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests and strengthen long-term political commitment to this end. In addition to providing a forum for forest policy development and dialogue, the UNFF is expected to monitor national, regional and global progress through reporting by Governments and regional and international organizations. It will be crucial, therefore, for African Governments to continue to participate fully in the UNFF process.
51. In order to halt deforestation and forest degradation, a number of countries have established national forest action plans to enhance the long-term development and management of forests. The ECCAS subregion, for example, has created a subregional instrument on forest ecosystems. In the SADC subregion efforts are underway to promote sustainable subregional self-sufficiency in forest and wood products through the SADC forest sector. The sector developed the Forest Policy and Development Strategy which was approved in 1997. Efforts are now underway to finalize and implement a SADC forest protocol. With regard to the implementation of CBD, the SADC countries have adopted the SADC Biodiversity Strategy. The programme aims at the conservation of both flora and fauna through the development of strategies for their conservation.
52. A number of instruments are now available for the management and sustainable utilization of biological diversity and forests. They include CBD, UNCCD, as well as the UNFF.
53. Ninety six per cent of the African countries have ratified the Rio conventions (the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the United Nations Framework Convention on climate change (UNFCCC), the United Nations convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)), and have taken some steps to implement them. Forty-six countries of the region are Parties to the Vienna Convention and forty-seven are Parties to the Montreal Protocol. Twenty-eight countries have signed the Biosafety Protocol while five have ratified the Kyoto Protocol and another five have signed it. Twenty-eight per cent of the African States have become Parties to the Bamako Convention. Countries which have not ratified or acceded to the Bamako Convention are called upon to do so, to ensure that the goals of the convention are realized.
Marine and coastal ecosystems and their resources
54. In a number of African countries, coastal and marine resources contribute markedly to the economies of the respective countries through fishing and tourism. Recent estimates suggest, however, that fish catches have been on the decline in some countries. Increased fishing and unmanaged small-scale fisheries could bring about the total collapse of the fishing industries. The coastal-based tourism industry, particularly in small island countries, is also experiencing difficulties.
55. Poorly planned developments along the coast of Africa, including the establishment of new towns, road networks, pipelines and ports continue to threaten marine and coastal resources. UNEP data indicate that marine pollutants from coastal towns and cities are being continuously discharged into the sea, resulting in contamination. In addition, the discharge into rivers, and ultimately the sea, of untreated wastes arising from mining and oil exploration activities is also threatening marine and coastal ecosystems. In other parts of the region, marine pollution arises from oil spills or petrochemical complexes containing high levels of chromium, mercury, phenols, acids, chlorine or urea.
56. The health of coastal populations depends on the health and well being of coastal eco-systems, which include near-shore waters, estuaries, wetlands and associated watersheds and drainage basins. In a number of countries, these habitats are being negatively affected by human pressure, pollution and physical alteration.
57. Coastal erosion that is exacerbated by clearance of mangrove ecosystems has become acute in some places. Coastal erosion is also the dominant cause accelerating the loss of many ecosystems and habitats such as lagoons, wetlands, mangroves and coastal reefs, including of their biodiversity. The degraded quality of coastal water and coastal landscape seriously threatens some traditional tourist destinations and is becoming an impediment for a more intensive development of tourism. This is particularly serious in small island countries in which the entire national territory consists of coastal areas. This situation coupled with environmental degradation is adversely affecting peoples' livelihoods and reducing the contribution of coastal resources to Gross National Products (GNP).
58. Considerable efforts are being made at national and regional levels to implement the Programme of Action agreed at the Global Conference for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States (SIDS).
59. Within the context of the Maputo and Cape Town conferences, which were held in July 1998 and December 1998, respectively, African Governments resolved to take urgent measures to halt and reverse the downward trends in the implementation of the Abidjan and Nairobi conventions - the two vital instruments for the protection, management and development of the coastal and marine environment in Africa. The Cape Town Declaration called upon UNEP, the secretariat of the Abidjan and Nairobi conventions, to develop a concrete action plan for the revitalization and coordination of the conventions through the establishment of joint mechanisms.
60. The major programmes and instruments for the protection and management of marine and coastal ecosystems and their resources, include: the Regional Seas Programme of UNEP, the Nairobi, Abidjan, Jeddah and Barcelona conventions and their related protocols, the Maputo and Cape Town declarations on the coastal and marine environment in Africa and the GEF (notably its international waters programme).
61. Although water is abundant on a regional scale, it is unevenly distributed by nature and unfairly allocated by man. A few countries of the region have a high annual average water supply per person, but many others already, or soon will, face water stress or scarcity conditions. Over 4000 million m3 of water return to the sea annually, but this figure has increased markedly in the past decades due to surface runoff exacerbated by massive deforestation. Moreover, the amount of water available from rainfall for human consumption and ecosystem maintenance continues to decline partly due to high rates of evaporation and evapotranspiration. Furthermore, the low level of technology in many parts of the region cannot adequately support the extraction and sustainable utilization of both surface and groundwater.
62. The continuing decline in the availability of usable water in the face of rising demand, poses the possibility of disputes and conflicts both within and among African countries. It could also result in international instability. Recent studies indicate that some 14 African countries are experiencing water scarcity and another 11 are likely to join them by 2025.
63. The main sources of water pollution in the region include eutrophication, pollution and the proliferation of aquatic weeds such as water hyacinth and salvinia. In recent years, water hyacinth has disrupted transport, water supplies to urban centres, fishing and power generation. Industrial and domestic wastes continue to be discharged without treatment into rivers and lakes in many African countries resulting in serious health problems.
64. Recent UNDP studies indicate that more than 300 million people in Africa lack access to safe water and that the situation is worsening. In sub-Saharan Africa about 51 per cent of the population has access to safe water and 47 per cent to sanitation. In general, urban residents have better access to safe water and sanitation than rural inhabitants.
65. With regard to the water resources sector, some subregions have developed sub-regional plans for integrated water resources development and management plans. In the case of the SADC subregion, the Protocol on Shared Water Course Systems was signed in 1995 by the majority of the member States. In the following year the SADC Water Sector Coordination Unit was established.
66. In summary, the challenges, constraints and deficiencies which must be overcome by African Governments in the management of fresh water resources for sustainable development include:
(i). Deficiencies of information and understanding.
This entails the failure to recognize that water has a value and it is that value which is necessary in project planning and evaluation.
(ii). Deficiencies in institutions.
The need for the establishment of appropriate networks of institutions, policy makers, stakeholders and scientists, including that for cooperation among African countries.
(iii). Deficiencies in capacity.
The deficiencies in technical skills for addressing water issues and most importantly the non-availability of mechanisms to pass on skills, knowledge and information to the public.
(iv). Deficiencies in the participatory process.
The need for grassroots participation in project planning and implementation, including the involvement of women and NGOs at all levels.
(v) Deficiencies in water management options:
The need to prepare national master plans encompassing water storage, quality, treatment, re-use and efficient and equitable distribution.
67. The United Nations System-Wide Special Initiative on Africa includes among its top priorities the equitable and sustainable use of freshwater resources and the 'fair share' approach to water resource management. The programme focuses primarily on changes in water policies, institutions and laws to bring the poor majority to the centre of the sustainable water-development agenda for Africa. The Global International Waters Assessment (GIWA) of UNEP, funded by GEF, attempts to assess the severity of several priority water-related issues, their geographic distribution and their root causes.
68. The major programmes and instruments for the management of fresh water in the region include GIWA, the programmes of African river and lake basin organizations, the Global Programme of Action on Land-based Sources of Pollution (GPA), the international waters portfolio of GEF and the African component of work on dams.
Toxic chemicals and hazardous wastes
69. The Bamako Convention on the Ban on the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes within Africa was negotiated and adopted in January 1991, by the Pan African Conference on Environment and Development. By the year 2000, ten African countries had ratified, while another five had acceded to the Convention. It is ten years since the Convention was adopted and only 28 per cent of the African States have become Parties suggesting that African countries have lost sight of the serious dangers associated with the dumping of wastes and chemicals on the continent.
70. According to GEO 2000, the establishment of the Bamako and the Basel conventions has resulted in the creation of the "Dump Watch", an advanced warning agreement among West and Central African States. According to the agreement, European Governments, international NGOs, corporate institutions and individuals provide information to African diplomatic missions on the movements of hazardous wastes from Europe to Africa. The information is then transmitted to the responsible institutions in Africa for necessary action.
71. In Africa, heavy metals (lead and mercury) and pesticides are still of great concern. Exposure to heavy metals results in various forms of cancer and in kidney failure. Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) include a wide range of chemicals such as pesticides (DDT, Chlordane and heptachlor). Although the use of these pesticides is restricted in developed countries, they are still manufactured for export to developing countries, including in Africa.
72. POPs have toxic properties; they resist degradation and can be transported through air and water and by migratory species. They can also be transported across international boundaries and could accumulate in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems far from their place of release.
73. Heavy metals and POPs are currently receiving attention. A number of African countries have introduced unleaded petrol. Other states have raised the prices of fertilizers and pesticides in order to promote a more efficient use of these chemicals and so reduce pollution levels. A few countries have enacted laws prohibiting the import, storage and transit of toxic wastes through national territory.
74. The Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee for the International Legally Binding Instrument for Implementing International Action on Certain Persistent Organic Pollutants held several negotiating sessions in 1999. The fifth and final session was held in Johannesburg, in December 2000. The Convention was adopted and opened for signature during the Conference of Plenipotentiaries, held in Stockholm, in May 2001.
B. Social and economic dimensions
75. Africa has been described as a continent in crisis. The years 1980 to 1989 are often referred to as the "lost decade", which describes the deterioration of the economies and the associated negative catastrophic impacts on society during that period. The period 1990 to 2000 is not one of prosperity with booming economies. In fact, the region has been in a state of crisis for the past three decades with economies declining steadily due to internal and external factors. According to the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) report, Africa's economic performance from 1998 to 2000 was just above 3 per cent; it was 3.1 per cent in 1998 and 3.2 per cent in 1999. The report adds that the major determinants of economic performance in the region were weather conditions, international commodity prices, social and political stability and the soundness of the economic policy framework in individual countries.
76. Africa's role in the global economy has mainly been that of a supplier of cheap labour and raw materials. Africa's natural resources - minerals, agricultural produce have continued to be drained instead of being used for the development of manufacturing industries and a highly skilled human base. In other developing regions of the world, an infusion of wealth in the form of investment created larger volumes of wealth through the export of value-added products. Thus, Africa has remained the poorest continent despite being one of the most richly endowed regions of the world.
Financial resource flows to Africa.
Official Development Assistance (ODA)
77. In Rio, some developed countries affirmed their commitment to reaching the target of 0.7 per cent of GNP for ODA, by the year 2000. Only Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway and Sweden achieved that goal. UNECA data show that the ODA received by African countries increased from $US8.5 billion in 1974-84, to $US22.1 billion in 1990-96. The extent of aid dependence is measured by the ODA/GDP ratio which increased from 2.7 per cent for Africa in the period 1974-1984, to 5 per cent between 1990 and 1996. The high aid dependence observed in some 25 African countries in 1999 (Table 1) is a reflection of the low savings rates in these countries. The flow of ODA to developing countries as a whole has declined significantly in real terms since 1992. ODA from Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries as a percentage of their combined GNP fell for five consecutive years, from 0.33 per cent in 1992, to its lowest level ever of 0.22 per cent in 1997, despite the fact that these countries wield substantial global political power. The decline in aid was particularly sharp from the United States of America, where aid was a mere 0.08 per cent of GNP in 1997, despite a large and buoyant economy. As overall ODA flows continue to decline, African countries should evaluate the implications of the decrease for their economies.
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)
78. In other developing regions, the decline in ODA has been compensated by the surge in foreign private capital flows. In general, the developing world recorded flows of private capital amounting to $US44 billion in 1990, which increased to $US244 billion in 1996. Africa received only 3 per cent of foreign private capital. The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) reported that in 1999, FDI to Africa rose from $US8 billion to $US10 billion. About 70 per cent of the total FDI to Africa in that year, however, was concentrated in just 5 countries, namely Angola, Egypt, Nigeria, South Africa and Morocco. The great majority of the poorest African nations continue to be marginalised in terms of the absolute amounts of foreign investments they receive. Africa needs a vibrant private sector (domestic and foreign) to provide the level of funds necessary.
79. African countries should, however, make an orderly transition from the current high level of ODA for financing economic and social development. ODA should serve a bridging role before private and public investments can provide the needed resources. Foreign aid should not replace private investment. There is need for the region to tap private foreign capital in order to raise the productivity levels necessary for sustained increases in the living standards of the African peoples. The African Governments and their development partners should also improve the effectiveness of aid by making donor programmes more focused on poverty eradication. For example, external partners will need to support subregional infrastructure projects, including the construction of roads, railways and ports, in order to facilitate cross border trade, with a view to expanding market access for goods and services.
The debt problem
80. Africa's external debt has been growing since the 1980s due to dead stocks and high interest rates. By 1998, the external debt of sub-Saharan Africa had grown to over $US230 billion, from $US60.8 billion in 1980 (the debt of the whole of Africa stood at $US324.7 billion, in 1998). External debt as a percentage of exports was 246 per cent and 224 per cent, in 1995 and 1996, respectively. As a proportion of exports to GDP, the external debt of Africa is the highest of any developing region. World Bank data show that only 9 out of 52 African countries (excluding Eritrea because of non-availability of data) were considered relatively free of external debt problems. Of the remaining 43, the World Bank categorized 32 as severely indebted and 11 as moderately indebted. The debt has become so large relative to export earnings and the economic size of the countries of Africa that it will be impossible to pay without imposing a huge burden on the debtor. The debt burden impedes public investment in physical and human infrastructure and deters private and foreign investments. International initiatives aimed at alleviating the debt problem have proved unsuccessful. Between 1980 and 1995, 22 African countries renegotiated their commercial bank debts a total of 58 times; and during the same period, 35 African countries renegotiated their external debt with their creditors in the Paris Club a total of 151 times.
81. The New African Initiative adopted by the OAU Heads of State and Government in Lusaka, July 2001, states that "Credit has led to the debt deadlock, which, from instalments to rescheduling, still exists and hinders the growth of African countries. The limits of this option have been reached."
82. The rate of growth and the magnitude of Africa's debt has been less than that of South-East Asia for the same period. The region's debt is unsustainable, however, particularly in relation to growth requirement. Indeed, payment of Africa's external debt has resulted in a shifting of resources from investment in development to debt repayment. High indebtedness has also discouraged investment, especially foreign investment. In addition, there has been a reduction in the financial assistance available to fund new projects because a large proportion of new aid services old debts. During the last decade, a substantial proportion of Africa's export earnings has been used for debt repayment resulting in the inability of countries to implement sustainable development strategies.
83. The enhanced Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative, which began in 1996, targeted 41 of the most indebted countries of the world, 32 of which were in Africa. In 1999, only Cote d'Ivoire, Mozambique and Uganda were receiving HIPC assistance, while countries in the pipeline included Mali, Mauritania and Ethiopia. Recent information from the World Bank and IMF shows that by the end of 2000, 18 African countries were receiving debt relief under the enhanced HIPC initiative, and that $US14. 6 billion had been committed as debt relief. The main objective of the scheme is to provide an opportunity for countries to borrow even as they receive debt relief, in order to continue with other obligations such as poverty reduction strategies. According to the World Bank, a country can qualify for debt relief under this initiative, by presenting a poverty reduction strategy paper, which is an operational instrument intended to translate the country's poverty reduction strategy into a focused plan of action.
84. It has been suggested, however, that HIPC debt relief is primarily targeted at lowering external debt to sustainable levels with benefits accruing over time and not in the short run. Although HIPC is the boldest initiative towards debt relief so far, the developed countries should seriously consider modifying it. Some of the options that have been suggested include debt reduction, debt forgiveness or more appropriately, debt cancellation. The third United Nations Conference on Least Developed Countries (LDC), held in May 2001, felt that the HIPC initiative was insufficient to break the debilitating economic cycle and to provide a sustainable exit from the debt trap. The Conference added that most LDCs were not on course to halve poverty by 2015.
85. Although most African countries have pursued export policies consistent with their comparative advantage in abundant natural resources and unskilled labour, they have lost their share of world trade in primary commodities due to inefficient agricultural practices, weak marketing, poor infrastructure, civil conflicts and increased competition from new primary commodity producers.
86. Privatization has been quite successful in some subregions. Inefficient public enterprises have been replaced by comparatively efficient private ones, thereby increasing the goods available to people. Privatization has also reduced state bureaucracy because of reduced state tasks.
87. The World Trade Organisation (WTO), established in 1995, is responsible of developing trade policies in collaboration with related regional institutions. It is acknowledged that African countries continue to produce raw materials destined for foreign markets to enable them to meet their external debts. Growth in export earnings is usually a reflection of an increase in the volume of exports. Trade liberalization, which is taking place in many African countries, and the pressure to service external debts, have markedly exacerbated environmental degradation associated with primary products.
88. Developing countries, as a whole, are not benefiting from trade liberalization. Quite the opposite, very few regions, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, show competitive dynamism and manufactured trade. The UNIDO data show that in 1998, East Asia alone accounted for 75 per cent of the total manufactured exports of the technology developing world, 87 per cent of high technology, 64 per cent of medium technology and 70 per cent of low technology exports. Sub-Saharan Africa accounted for only 1 per cent of total manufactured exports, 4.8 per cent of resource based, 1.5 per cent for low technology, 1.9 per cent for medium technology and 0.4 per cent for high technology products. Regional concentration in East Asia has increased instead of diminishing, since 1980.
89. There is a clear international consensus that recognizes the opportunities and challenges that globalization offers. It is now acknowledged that no individual country or organization can hope to fulfill its goals in isolation, and hence the need for greater North - South and South - South cooperation. Globalization has resulted in the dismantling of barriers to trade, capital mobility, fundamental technological advances, and a decline in the costs of communication and computing. Globalization, therefore, means the creation of bigger markets.
90. Although globalization provides prospects for future economic prosperity, including poverty reduction, many countries in Africa have contributed passively to it. Because of unfair, non-transparent and discriminatory rules, globalization has increased the capacity of developed countries to advance their interests to the detriment of developing countries, particularly in the areas of trade, finance and technology.
91. The Millennium Report of the United Nations Secretary General states that although globalization is transforming the world today, there are dangers associated with it, including crime, narcotics, terrorism, diseases and weapons. The opening of borders in the name of globalization has accentuated the global transmission of pathogens including HIV/AIDS. The expansion of industrialization in response to new markets in the context of globalization has markedly affected the global climate. The benefits of globalization include, inter alia, fast economic growth, higher living standards, accelerated innovations and diffusion of technology and management skills. In addition, globalization brings about new opportunities for individuals, as well as better understanding between nations. The Millennium Report adds that despite the great opportunities globalization offers, its benefits are unevenly distributed and yet the costs are borne by all. The benefits and opportunities of globalization are concentrated in a small number of countries. An imbalance has arisen between creating and enforcing rules that facilitate the expansion of global markets, while environmental activities or social programmes such as on labour standards, human rights or poverty reduction have received no support.
92. The question is how to make globalization a positive force for all people, including those of Africa. Africa's inability to benefit fully from globalization is the result of resource outflows and unfavourable terms of trade. Furthermore, failures in political and economic leadership in many countries of the region have impeded the mobilization of resources into productive areas of activity, resulting in the failure to attract domestic and foreign investments.
93. As a result of globalization, and the integration of the world's economies, there has been a renewed interest in regional integration in Africa. The consequences of such a move would certainly increase the continent's two per cent share of global trade.
94. African development requires the support of efficient physical infrastructure, transport (roads, railways, maritime shipping, ports and harbours, air transport; communications (post, broadcasting, telecommunication and computer information networks), energy (firewood, geothermal, oil, natural gas, hydro-potential, solar and wind) and water (irrigation, sanitation, industrial and human and animal consumption). If infrastructure systems are well planned, targeted, cost effective and efficiently operated, they can play an important role in poverty reduction by increasing the equitable distribution of economic opportunities, reducing rural/urban migration and minimizing pressure on the environment, particularly in urban areas and secondary towns.
Governance, human rights, conflict prevention and post-conflict peace building
95. A market economy requires good governance, or else citizens engage in unproductive activities such as bribery and corruption. The result is the creation of fewer jobs and a corresponding decline in household incomes and welfare. Good governance requires a range of actions geared towards a participatory approach in policy formulation and implementation, as well as the promotion of accountability and transparency in public affairs. In addition, the State must guarantee the rights of each citizen by strengthening democracy and promoting the rule of law. This may be achieved through commitment to supporting assessments of governance and the participation of local citizens in identifying the action to be taken and the development of appropriate bench marks for measuring improvements in governance over time.
96. No country can consider itself secure if its neighbour is embroiled in conflict. Conflict prevention, management and resolution should be an integral part of comprehensive programmes of development. War consumes resources and destroys people and assets, it displaces populations, it undermines democracy and governance. The inequitable distribution of resources results in violence and hence in the need for equitable development and improved governance. The African experience suggests the need for strong mechanisms and institutions for regional peace and security.
97. In addition to losses in economic productivity and the destruction of physical and social infrastructure, a lack of good governance can result in refugees and human suffering. According to UNHCR statistics, there were over 4 million refugees in Africa in 1997, with over 1 million concentrated in the Horn of Africa. The number of displaced persons was estimated at 20 million. Civil wars and conflicts adversely affect civilians, particularly women and children, rather than the soldiers themselves.
98. The Report of the Open-Ended Ad Hoc Working Group on the Causes of Conflict and the Promotion of Durable Peace and Sustainable Development in Africa estimated that there were 17 ongoing conflicts in the region in August 2001.
99. To address the conflicts in the region, a wide variety of mechanisms has been put in place. They include:
100. In carrying out these tasks, the United Nations and other organizations have experienced daunting challenges, including:
101. The Ad Hoc Working Group proposed the need for collaboration between civil society, government, and regional/subregional organizations in their efforts on the prevention, management and resolution of conflicts. In addition, the Group recognized the close link between poverty eradication and conflict prevention and the imperative need for Africa to achieve the international development goal of halving poverty by the year 2015. The Group also called for greater financial support for demobilization, disarmament and reintegration programmes.
102. The African Governments now generally acknowledge that the overarching objective of development must centre on the reduction of poverty in the short-term and its complete eradication in the long-run. A number of international fora, including the World Summit on Social Development, held in Copenhagen, in 1995, share the same view. The poverty line is defined as the expenditure required to satisfy the basic needs of each person in a society, and this varies from country to country. In the early 1990s, about 44 per cent of the Africa's population was living below a poverty line of $US39 per person per month. UNECA data show that sub-Saharan Africa had a higher incidence of poverty with 52 per cent of the population living below a poverty line of $US37.5 per person per month, while North Africa had a much lower incidence of poverty, with 22 per cent of the population living below the poverty line. The average income of the poor for the whole continent was only US cents 83 per person per day.
103. In rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa, the incidence of poverty was more acute and widespread, with 59 per cent of the population living below the poverty line of $US26 per person per month. In urban areas, 43 per cent of the population lived below a poverty line of approximately $US43 per person per month. In 1998, average monthly expenditure in sub-Saharan Africa was $US14 per person by the rural poor and $US27 by the urban poor. Rural poverty responds more to income growth than to changes in the distribution of income, but the reverse is true for urban poverty. Current estimates indicate that there are 300 million people in sub-Saharan Africa who struggle on less than $US1.0 per day. In contrast, twenty years ago, there were 230 million people in sub-Saharan Africa living on less than one dollar per day. The UNDP Human Development Index Report (2001) shows that 29 African countries fall within the bottom category of the human development index, as opposed to only 5 countries from all other regions (Table 2). Statistics also show that there are more poor women than poor men. Poor countries, especially those with significant inequality between ethnic and religious communities, are likely to be embroiled in conflicts. Such countries also lack the capacity and resources to implement environmentally-sound policies.
104. The Millennium Summit pledged to reduce by half the number of people living on less than a dollar per day by the year 2015. The 146 Heads of State also promised, "to spare no effort to free all humanity, and above all our children and grandchildren, from the threat of living on a planet irredeemably spoilt by human activities and whose resources would no longer be sufficient to meet their needs." In order to reduce poverty, GDP growth rates must increase. Calculations show that GDP rates in the northern and southern Africa subregions would need to grow by 5-6 per cent per annum to reduce poverty by half by 2015. The figures for the Central Africa subregion, and western and eastern Africa are 7 per cent per annum, 7.6 per cent and 8.12 per cent per annum, respectively. The countries of sub-Saharan African face a greater challenge in achieving the high economic growth rates shown here, particularly in view of their past poor performance. In contrast, the countries of North Africa have traditionally had strong growth rates.
105. Poverty reduction requires a strong political commitment with specific policy instruments targeting the poorest segment of society. Africa has a high degree of inequality in income distribution in comparison with other regions of the world, second only to Latin America. As a result, economic growth alone is unlikely to benefit the poor. Poverty reduction will also require the redistribution of wealth and land, as well as education for all.
106. To achieve average GDP growth of 7 per cent per year requires additional investments. Estimates suggest that Africa will require investment of 33 per cent of GDP to attain 7 per cent per annum growth, financed partly by domestic savings and the rest by foreign inflows. In recent years, however, the volume of foreign resource flows to Africa has been on the decline. Hence there is a need and urgency for the region to address the issue of raising domestic savings to meet the poverty reduction objective. African policy makers have no control in setting commodity prices. Africa, therefore, requires the assistance of developed partners in dealing with ODA and debt issues. Policy issues targeting poverty reduction that are within the control of African policy makers include, raising domestic savings (as determined by the level of real income), stopping capital flight and allowing external resource inflows such as foreign direct investments.
The poverty and environment nexus
107. Poverty is a cause and consequence of environmental degradation. It exacerbates environmental degradation by forcing poor people to till marginal lands or over-harvest depleted fisheries in a desperate struggle to survive. Although poverty has previously been defined by income, a consensus is emerging that poverty encompasses a range of deprivations, including a lack of access to natural resources, health care and education, an inability to access the political process, and vulnerability to catastrophes. Poor people tend to inhabit fragile areas (degraded/marginal lands, steep hillsides, forest margins, coastlines) where water and land management are critical to maintaining productivity. According to UNDP, poverty includes not only a lack of material means, but also the denial of opportunities and choices most basic to human development.
108. Environmental degradation contributes markedly to many health threats, including polluted air, dirty water, poor sanitation, and insect-transmitted diseases such as malaria. The production and use of toxic chemicals also poses another major threat to human health. Land degradation and water shortages in many parts of Africa are a severe threat to the ability of the poor farmers to earn a living from the land. Degradation of coastal areas, including over-fishing also constrains the well-being of poor people in the region.
109. In many countries of Africa, the population living in urban centres has increased markedly due to migration from rural areas. Exploding slums, with over-population, wretched living and sanitary conditions, pollution and acute social problems have marked the growth of large cities. There is a need to promote policy reforms that make environmentally-sound enterprise economically competitive.
110. Natural disasters occur in all parts of the world. Poor people are more vulnerable to environmental changes and natural disasters such as floods, earthquakes, landslides and severe storms, resulting in loss of life and economic harm. Vulnerability to disasters is increased by growing human population in cities and along coastlines. Recent climate studies suggest that climate change-induced drought could increase the proportion of Africa's population at risk of hunger by as much as 18 per cent, by the 2050s.
111. Nearly all countries of the region have established a task force on disaster management. At the subregional level the Early Warning Systems (EWS) have been established for crops, livestock, drought, floods, cyclones, etc. The EWS work closely with the national meteorological services and other subregional and regional institutions such as Drought Monitoring Centres, African Centre of Meteorological Applications for Development (ACMAD), AGRHYMET and Hydro-Niger.
112. During the past decade, the major natural disasters that have afflicted Africa include floods, drought, earthquake and cyclones. Some areas were also affected by fire, locusts, volcanic eruptions, hailstorms and chemical accidents (Table 3). Some 20 countries have been hit repeatedly during the decade making it difficult for them to pursue sustainable development strategies.
113. Human capacities are the wealth of a nation, and although machinery and finance are important, it is the people that make economies grow. The spread of literacy and basic education is a necessary condition for social and economic development. Education and training are, therefore, essential preconditions for Africa's transition to sustainable development.
114. The Millennium Declaration confirmed the commitment made at the World Education Forum, held in Dakar, in 2000, that the basic learning needs of all children, young people and adults, wherever they may live, will be met by 2015. The challenge of meeting the goal of education for all is greatest in Africa. The higher education of skilled technicians, especially in the new information-based global economy is also important. To date, scientific and technological capacity is weak and the level of investment in this area is low in Africa.
115. Available data show that the enrolment rate for primary education in African countries is 77 per cent, while that of girls is under 75 per cent. Because of the current low enrolment rates, it will be difficult to reach the agreed international development goals:
(i). Primary education for all by the year 2015;
(ii). Eliminating gender disparities in education by 2005.
116. The main factors constraining the implementation of the agreed international goals include, inadequate financial resources, insufficient teaching and learning facilities; limited school places to serve a growing school age population; and weak institutional capacity to deliver high-quality education. The brain drain from the continent and the HIV/AIDS pandemic are also eroding the limited human resource capacity in the region.
117. The World Bank, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) (in collaboration with UNDP) are supporting basic education in 16 African countries with low student enrolment, while the World Bank is supporting education sector development programmes in 15 African countries. These are aimed at expanding access of girls to education, especially at the primary level, as well as improving the quality of education. UNICEF is also supporting the African girl's education initiative to enable more girls to enroll in schools and to improve their attendance.
118. In 1994, UNESCO established the University Industry Science Partnership Africa Programme and the International Fund for Technological Development of Africa aimed at developing and promoting endogenous science and technology capacity in the region.
119. Malaria and tuberculosis kill an estimated 1-1.5 million people per year, while measles and water borne infections also take a huge toll on African children (Table 4, Table 5). According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), malaria slows economic growth in the region by 1.3 per cent per annum. Malaria-free countries average three times higher GDP per person than those with malaria. In the Harare Declaration on Malaria Control (1977), African countries emphasized the importance of addressing malaria control. Diseases not only cause human suffering, but they also contribute to impoverishment through reduced labour productivity and the diversion of financial resources to procure treatment.
120. It has been estimated that African countries spend about $US10 per person per annum on health and a comparable amount is contributed by the affected individuals and their relatives. Minimum health care should cost about $US45-60 per person per year, but most African countries cannot afford such amounts. The financial gap in health care ($US25-40) per person adds up to some $US10-16 billion per year to cover the needs of low-income countries and communities.
The HIV/AIDS scourge
121. The HIV/AIDS pandemic threatens the lives of millions of Africans and the economic and political viability of many States of the region (Table 5). The United Nations Secretary General's statement during the Millennium Summit indicated that out of 36 million people living with HIV/AIDS globally, more than 23 million (64 per cent) are in sub-Saharan Africa. Furthermore, one child in every 10 had lost its mother to AIDS and it was estimated that by 2010, there would be 40 million orphans in sub-Saharan Africa. Of 9,000 new infections daily worldwide, half are estimated to be in sub-Saharan Africa. Particularly disturbing is that 8 million African women are infected with HIV, compared with 10 million women globally. In sixteen African countries, at least 10 per cent of the adult population (15-49 years) is already infected with HIV (Table 5).
122. According to UNDP, most African countries in sub-Saharan Africa have experienced declines in per capita incomes during the past decade due to HIV/AIDS. The epidemic threatens to wipe out the few gains registered earlier and many years of human development progress have been lost. Africa's development and governance efforts will be in serious jeopardy unless effective strategies are put in place to halt and reverse the scourge. HIV/AIDS adversely affects many development sectors, including health and education and the region requires $US2-10 billion per year to mitigate the economic impact of the pandemic on these sectors. HIV/AIDS clearly poses the most profound challenge to survival, let alone sustainable development. HIV/AIDS is also affecting household savings behaviour, resulting in a decline in investments due to a decrease in domestic savings. Public savings will also decline due to increased health expenditures. Poverty and inequity are also likely to increase because HIV/AIDS reduces economic growth. The scourge is further expected to increase income inequality by increasing the scarcity of skilled labour. The Government of Zimbabwe has projected that HIV/AIDS will consume 60 per cent of the nation's health budget by 2005.
123. In order to improve the health condition of the people, some countries have introduced health levies while carrying out awareness campaigns especially on sexually transmitted diseases, including the HIV/AIDS pandemic. In the SADC subregion, a Health Protocol has been formulated and approved by the Heads of State. In many countries of the region, a task force on HIV/AIDS pandemic has been established. In the case of SADC, however, the task force on HIV/AIDS has been established at the subregional level and has developed a SADC Strategic Framework on HIV/AIDS for 2000-2004.
124. The African Heads of State and Government met in Abuja, in April 2001, to review and determine the course of action to take in combating HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis and other related infectious diseases. They resolved to provide leadership for all national activities on combating AIDS, to keep the question of HIV/AIDS high on the national agenda and to enhance the capacities of their respective Governments to develop national strategies to deal with HIV/AIDS.
125. The Millennium Summit adopted an explicit goal of reducing new infections in the most affected countries by 25 per cent, among 15 to 24 year olds, before 2005. Twenty-four of these countries are in Africa. At the Millennium Summit, the United Nations Secretary General challenged the developed countries to work with their pharmaceutical industries and other partners to develop an effective and affordable vaccine against HIV.
126. One of the major challenges of humankind today is the fact that more than one billion human beings lack adequate shelter. Of grave concern also is the rapid rate of urbanization. The ECA statistics show that the urbanization level of Africa was 14.5 per cent in 1950 and increased to 28 and 34 per cent in 1980 and 1990 respectively. It is expected to reach 50 per cent by 2020. According to GEO 2000, Africa has the highest urbanization rate in the world resulting in a deteriorating urban environment.
127. The UN Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat II) that was held in Istanbul (1996) had, as its main conference themes: adequate shelter for all; and sustainable human settlement developments in an urbanizing world.
128. The Habitat Agenda (1996) states, Everyone has the right to an adequate standard of living for themselves and their families, including adequate food, clothing, housing, water and sanitation, and to the continuous improvement of living conditions. We recognize that access to safe and healthy shelter and basic services is essential to a person's physical, psychological, social and economic well-being and should be a fundamental part of our urgent actions for the more than one billion people without decent living conditions. Our objective is to achieve adequate shelter for all, especially the deprived urban and rural poor, through an enabling approach to the development and improvement of shelter that is environmentally sound." Because of the fragile African environment and unstable economies, the implementation of the Habitat Agenda is likely to constitute a serious challenge to the African Nations.
Integrating environmental concerns into key policies, plans and decision making
129. Sustainable development requires the integration of environment and development at the outset of the decision-making process, so as to align core macro-economic strategies that include trade and environmental goals.
130. Since UNCED, some African countries have made an attempt to integrate environment, economic and social objectives into decision-making through the elaboration of new policies and strategies for sustainable development. A number of these countries have adapted existing policies and/or established national commissions.
131. In recent years some Governments have begun initiatives towards the incorporation of environmental dimensions into socio-economic policies. A few countries have already taken steps to merge ministries of environment with ministries of economic planning, while others have stationed environmental experts in crucial ministries (agriculture, industry, transport, etc.) to ensure the incorporation of environmental concerns into economic policies. A few Governments have realized the need not only to conserve biological resources, but also to utilize them sustainably. Many Governments are also involved in the conservation of fragile and endangered ecosystems.
132. Some countries of the region have reinforced their commitment to the implementation of Agenda 21 through the enactment of laws to ensure political support to the activities being undertaken in the area of environmental protection. A few countries prepare an annual report on the state of the national environment. Other countries have institutionalized mechanisms to empower and involve marginalised sections of communities in the formulation and implementation of environmental policies. A number of countries in the region have enacted laws on Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), which include the creation of sectoral procedures and guidelines for, inter alia, agricultural and rural development, oil and gas exploration, infrastructure development, manufacturing and mining activities. Many countries have enacted environmental codes for the sustainable use of water and forests, protection of biodiversity and management of solid wastes. Only a few countries have elaborated and enacted laws relating to resource accounting, or have undertaken sustainable development audits. Enactment of legislation on the polluter pays principle has also received some attention.
133. In Rio, Governments agreed to a number of objectives, policies and strategies as contained in Agenda 21. It has, however, been shown that commitment and genuine involvement by all groups in society is crucial for the goals to become reality. Before Rio, addressing socio-economic and environmental issues in many countries of the region was largely the monopoly of the state. The Earth Summit and all other post-UNCED conferences have stressed the need to improve or restructure the decision-making process so that socio-economic and environmental issues are fully integrated and a broader range of public participation is assured.
134. Popular participation and the democratization of socio-economic and environmental actions presupposes a situation where there is consultation and involvement of the people in all actions. This includes the identification of local socio-economic and environmental problems, solutions to the problems and modalities for action. The local people must also participate fully in the implementation of the projects they have helped to design. Genuine ownership of a project by the local communities is the passport to its success.
135. The international community has endorsed several plans of action for the full integration of women in all development activities. The Beijing Conference concluded that unless the contribution of women to environment and resource management is recognized and supported, sustainable development would remain elusive. Women must, therefore, be included in policy formulation and decision-making processes.
136. The population of Africa was estimated at 850 million in the year 2000, forty-five per cent of which was under 15 years old, and over 60 per cent under 25 years. As the future generation of leaders, children and youth must participate fully in decision making on sustainable development, in order to safeguard the sustainability of development actions.
137. NGOs and community based organizations (CBOs) play a vital role in implementing participatory democracy. Their credibility lies in the responsible and constructive way they operate in society. Formal and informal organizations, as well as grassroots movements should be recognized as partners in the development process.
138. To enhance the involvement of major groups in the implementation of Agenda 21, NGOs have been integrated in policy-making organs such as national environment advisory committees in parts of Africa. In some countries, a Council of NGOs has been established as the coordination unit of all NGO actions mandated with the rehabilitation of the environment. To strengthen further the coordination mechanism of Agenda 21 implementation, some African countries have established inter-ministerial coordination committees, agencies, secretariats, councils, or commissions. A major responsibility of such bodies has been the development of guidelines to assist local authorities in setting up local Agenda 21 programmes and projects. The other role of the inter-ministerial committees has centred on the integration of environment in the decision-making process. It is, however, important to point out that few countries have elaborated and enacted laws that aim at integrating environmental concerns into socio-economic planning processes.
139. It was intended that Governments would show their commitment to Agenda 21 and implement its provisions partly through the Rio and post-Rio conventions.
A. The implementation of the Rio conventions
140. The UNFCCC and the CBD were adopted and signed by most Governments during the Earth Summit in Rio. The UNCCD however, arose from UNCED (para.12.40 of Agenda 21). The CCD was opened for signature in Paris, in October 1994, and entered into force in 1996.
141. The aim of the UNFCCC is to regulate levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, so as to changes in climate at levels that would harm economic development or that would impede food production activities. This will require a reduction in the emissions of gases such as carbon dioxide, a by-product of the use of burning fuels for energy. The objectives of the CBD relate to the conservation of biological resources, their sustainable utilization and the equitable sharing of the benefits arising from such utilization. The objective of the UNCCD is to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought in countries experiencing serious drought and/or desertification, particularly in Africa. It seeks to achieve this objective through integrated approaches to development, supported by international cooperation and partnership arrangements, in the affected areas.
142. Of the 53 African countries, 47 signed the FCCC in Rio, thereby demonstrating overwhelming support for the Convention. Most of these countries proceeded to ratify it. As at 7 September 2000, 51 states (96 per cent) had ratified the Convention (Table 6).
143. The CBD was opened for signature in Rio and remained open at United Nations Headquarters in New York until June 1993. During that period 49 African countries signed it. As at 23rd July 2001, 51 (96 per cent) African countries had ratified or acceded to the CBD (Table 7). Countries that have not signed the convention may become members by accession.
144. Of the 159 countries that had ratified or acceded to the UNCCD as at third Conference of the Parties (COP), held in Recife, Brazil, in November 1999, fifty were African. By 11 October 2000, all African countries except 1 had ratified or acceded to the UNCCD (Table 8).
The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD)
145. The CCD comprises of a preamble, six parts and five regional implementation annexes; for Africa (RIAA), for Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, the Northern Mediterranean and Central and Eastern Europe. The Convention and the RIAA stipulate the roles to be played by national action programmes (NAP), subregional action programmes (SRAP) and the regional action programme (RAP).
In compliance with various Articles of UNCCD and the RIAA, that which call for the identification of factors contributing to desertification and the need to adopt practical measures to combat the process, over 80 per cent of African countries prepared NAPs which were presented at the third session of Conference of Parties in Recife. Before COP-3, UNEP organized the African Regional Preparatory Conference which was held in Nairobi, in September 1999. The meeting reviewed the implementation of the Convention in affected African countries, as well as experience gained and results achieved in the preparation and implementation of NAPs, environmental policies and strategies.
An important aspect of the NAPs is the need to establish benchmarks and performance indicators for measuring progress in combating desertification and the impacts of drought. A number of African countries have initiated benchmarks and indicators to ensure that the short, medium and long-term actions of anti-desertification programmes are quantifiable and readily verifiable. A number of Articles of CCD and the RIAA relate to specific NAP programme areas. They include the promotion of early warning and food security systems, drought preparedness, institutional legal frameworks, environmental education and public awareness, capacity building and others. Many African countries have established National Focal Points for the Convention and in some cases national stakeholders' forums have already been held. The NAP process has contributed to raising awareness on land degradation issues. Some African countries have developed national desertification funds to facilitate resource mobilization for the implementation of NAPs. A few countries have developed national remote sensing systems for vegetation mapping.
The SRAPs of SADC, IGAD, CILSS / ECOWAS, and AMU were also presented at COP-3 of UNCCD. The SRAPs are linked to NAPs through the Multidisciplinary Scientific and Technical Consultative Committee that ensures the harmonization and coordination of the two processes. Studies of the priority programme areas identified by the respective subregions indicate that a number of programmes are of common concern to all of them. They include:
- Capacity building and institutional strengthening;
- Strengthening early warning systems to mitigate the effects of drought;
- Cooperation in the sustainable management of shared transboundary natural resources and ecosystems, as well as the development of legal frameworks;
- Information collection, management and exchange;
- Development and transfer of appropriate scientific and technical cooperation;
- Leveraging financial support from GEF for the implementation of UNCCD and RIAA; and
- Awareness raising and programme coordination and implementation.
Priority programme areas have been identified at regional level and these were also presented at COP-3. Specialized institutions in the region have been identified and entrusted with the responsibility of coordinating activities in their respective fields of competence. The programmes which have been identified for implementation at the regional level under the lead of the Regional Coordination Unit (RCU) include:
- Ecological monitoring, resource mapping and remote sensing;
- Agroforestry and soil conservation;
- Rational use of rangelands and development of fodder crops;
- Management of international rivers, lakes and hydrological basins;
- Renewable energy sources and technologies;
- Agricultural farming systems.
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
146. In 1994, the African Ministerial Conference on Environment (AMCEN) published The African Common Perspectives and Position on the Convention on Biological Diversity, which outlined Africa's approach to the implementation of the CBD. The document also addressed Africa's efforts and undertakings, as well as the requirement for international support and cooperation in implementing the CBD.
147. Within the past decade, a number of African countries have undertaken various activities within the framework of CBD implementation, including biodiversity assessment, management, research and monitoring, the development of economic tools and policy instruments for the management of biodiversity, capacity building involving human and institutional strengthening and public awareness campaigns. Some of the activities carried out are summarized below:
Within the context of Article 6 of the Convention, a number of African countries have participated in the preparation of the national biodiversity assessments. Each country established a Task Force to spearhead the assessment. As of May 2000, ten of 41 countries had finalized their national biodiversity strategies and action plans.
A number of countries, particularly East African countries, participated in coral reef assessments. Currently, a rapid assessment methodology for coral reef management in Eastern Africa is being developed.
The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety was adopted in Montreal, Canada, in January 2000. The Protocol has its origins in Article 19(3) of the CBD that called on Parties to consider the need for and modalities of a protocol setting out appropriate procedures in the handling and use of any living modified organisms resulting from biotechnology that may have adverse effect on the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. A special feature of the Protocol relates to the incorporation of the precautionary principle as set out in Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. The objective of the Protocol is to contribute to ensuring an adequate level of protection in the safe transfer, handling and use of living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology. The Protocol was opened for signature at COP-5 of the CBD and will come into force on receipt of 50 ratifications. As at 23rd July 2001, 28 African States had signed the Protocol (Table 7).
It will be cost effective for African countries to develop and adopt a regional programme on the Protocol. Such a programme would emphasize the exchange of information and expertise in biotechnology and biosafety, and result in a common strategy to attract investments in safe biotechnology for the region's agriculture and other needs.
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
148. The main greenhouse gases responsible for climate change (global warming) include carbon dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, methane and CFCs. Some of the activities which contribute to the emission of these substances into the atmosphere include, energy production, agriculture, land-use modification and industrial activities. Overstocking results in the reduction of vegetation cover and thus, exposes the soil to water and wind erosion. Land degradation and drought reduce the capacity of soils to store carbon. Frequent biomass burning, which is prevalent in African forests and savannah grasslands, reduces the carbon stored in vegetation while increasing carbon emissions and land degradation. Recent estimates suggest that deforestation and devegetation in the region release 4 per cent of carbon to the atmosphere in comparison to all other tropical areas.
149. It is often assumed that global warming is not an African problem because the region's contribution to global emissions is insignificant. The region is, however, particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, because of factors such as poverty, recurrent droughts, land degradation, desertification and over-dependence on primary production. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) recently predicted that many parts of Africa might experience lower precipitation levels and hence the semi-arid areas of the region would become drier. This, in turn, would culminate in a decrease in agricultural productivity, an increase in vector-borne diseases and the disruption of natural ecological systems. In addition, people living in low-lying coastal regions may be displaced due to rises in sea level. Because of the sensitivity of major rivers to climate variations, average run-off and water availability would decrease in Mediterranean countries and those in Southern Africa. Desertification would be exacerbated by reductions in average annual rainfall, run-off, and soil moisture, especially in the south, north and west of Africa. Increasing droughts, floods and other extreme events would increase stress on water resources, food security, human health and infrastructure, and this would constrain development. It is further postulated that the extinction of plants and animal species as a result of climate change would negatively impact rural livelihoods, tourism and genetic resources.
150. According to the UNFCCC Secretariat, as of May 2001, 11 Parties in the African Region had submitted their national communications to the Secretariat. The main issues raised in their reports include the need for better quality data, improved information flows and scientific research, financial resources and technical expertise, improved technologies, impact assessments; and adaptation measures. It is important, therefore, that adaptation measures and technology transfer are carefully planned to strengthen the social capacity to adapt.
151. The Kyoto Protocol, adopted in December 1997, sets an overall target of a 5.2 per cent reduction in emissions of six greenhouse gases by 2008-2012, using 1990 as a base year. The Protocol must be ratified by at least 55 countries, including all the developed nations, before it can enter into force. As at 17 July 2001, 36 countries had ratified the protocol. The USA has, however, declined to sign the Protocol so jeopardising its early adoption.
152. During COP-6 negotiations, African countries appeared divided over two issues. First, reduction of global greenhouse gas emissions through the management of agricultural systems and lands, thereby offering them an opportunity to meet their afforestation and reforestation goals (Article 3.3). Secondly, the inclusion of sinks in Article 15 of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). Arguments and counter arguments have been produced for both scenarios. Of great importance for African countries is the strengthening of their capacities to enable them to keep under review the issues relating to climate vulnerability. In addition, African countries will need to formulate an African Common Position by undertaking in-depth research and holding discussions on the key issues prior to negotiations.
Streamlining national reporting for the Rio conventions
153. In view of the increasing number of international agreements in recent years, the volume of reporting required of Governments has increased markedly. African Governments have raised their concern over the difficulties they continue to experience in meeting convention reporting obligations. There is a need for the various Secretariats to meet with government representatives to determine the minimum reporting requirements for each convention. This is feasible if convention reports are viewed as sub-sets of a comprehensive national state of the environment report. This is likely to enhance cooperation among the conventions, as well as the flow of data and information.
Promoting collaboration amongst the scientific and technical bodies of the conventions
154. Each convention has its scientific or technical body responsible for vetting technical information and data for use by the Parties. In many cases there are overlapping issues relating to the implementation of the conventions. The convention secretariats are located in various countries depending on offers to host the body. Moreover, when the conventions were being negotiated, little attention was paid to the inter-linkages between the different areas of concern.
155. Regarding national reporting, there is a multitude of organizations that regularly request information from governments, including bilateral and multilateral donors, different convention secretariats, United Nations Commissions and organisations.. The ideal would be to harmonize the reporting systems as contained in the UNEP Draft guidelines on options for enhancing compliance with multilateral environmental agreements. Harmonization of reporting has the potential to build common interests and a common platform of shared priorities and objectives.
156. In 1998, the United Nations Secretary General established the Task Force on Environment and Human Settlements. Its report recommended the setting up of an Environment Management Group to address issues related to the improvement in the coordination between organisations, agencies and environmental conventions.
157. Desertification, for example, is linked to biodiversity through vegetation. Combating desertification achieves the objectives of the CBD, FCCC and the Forest Principles. Scientific bodies of the three conventions should be able to develop programmes and projects in various areas showing the inter-linkages and synergies among the Rio conventions. The organization of workshops on cross-cutting themes, will enable the Parties to share information and experiences and also to appreciate the synergies that exist among the Rio conventions. In recent years, there has been an increase in memoranda of understanding between convention secretariats signaling closer collaboration in the implementation of their programmes of work.
Harmonization/rationalization of policy instruments
158. Due to the increase in international agreements, the number of policy instruments has also mushroomed. These include national environmental action plans, local Agenda 21, forest action plans, and national action programmes (NAP) to combat desertification. It is desirable to rationalize and harmonize them.
B. Global Environment Facility (GEF) resources
159. The Earth Summit of 1992 designated GEF as the principal interim financial mechanism for four global environmental issues, namely protecting biodiversity, limiting emissions of greenhouse gases, protecting international waters and the ozone layer. In addition to the areas listed above, GEF also provides funds for activities that address land degradation issues, primarily desertification and deforestation, so long as they relate to the focal areas.
160. According to GEO 2000, Africa had received $US419 million (22 per cent of all GEF funding) for approved projects by June 1998. By mid 1998, the regional projects in the biodiversity focal area had been allocated the highest amount globally (some $US250 million). GEO 2000 lists examples of other national and subregional projects in the biodiversity focal area, including the management of plant genetic resources, and of protected areas, the conservation and management of habitats and species, island biodiversity, coastal, marine and freshwater ecosystems, forest ecosystems and capacity and institution building.
161. In the area of climate change, projects that are being supported in the region, include the photovoltaic market transformation initiative, wind power, control of greenhouse gas emissions, carbon sequestration and renewable energy.
162. In the area of international waters the projects include waterbody management programmes, pollution control, integrated land and water programmes, and oil pollution management projects.
C. Environmentally sound technologies
163. The low level of technology in Africa is a major constraint to the region's development. The need to introduce and ensure access to technologies, particularly biotechnology, information and communication technologies, for the enhancement of sustainable development in the region cannot be disputed.
164. Despite the importance of technology in development, public awareness and concerns have recently been raised on the impacts of technology on the natural resource base. The mismanagement and ill-informed application of industrial technology can cause irreversible and negative consequences to the earth's resources, resulting in development that is not sustainable.
165. While modern biotechnology is recognized as having a great potential, especially in the areas of food and agriculture, the products can be harmful to human health and the environment. There is global concern for the establishment of regulatory measures to control the generation and use of technologies with negative effects on human health, ecology and the economy. At international level, the conclusion and adoption of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety is a significant step forward in providing a regulatory framework for the application of environmentally sound biotechnology in agriculture, industry/trade and human health.
166. The principles of sustainable development as articulated in Agenda 21 provide for the promotion and equitable sharing of the benefits of technological development. Within the region, South Africa and Egypt lead in biotechnology with considerable scientific infrastructure and elaborate biotechnology programmes. In all African countries (including South Africa and Egypt), the results and opportunities of technological development in the form of improved health facilities, enhanced agricultural production, and telecommunication facilities are accessible to only a small group of the population.
167. Africa needs to bridge the digital divide in order to participate in the global information economy. In 1996, ECA developed the African Information Society Initiative as part of its efforts to help build an information and communication infrastructure. UNDP and ECA are assisting 10 sub-Saharan countries to strengthen their internet infrastructure and services with a view to accelerating socio-economic development in those countries.
168. In order to narrow the digital gap between the developed world and African countries, the ECA Report entitled Compact for African Recovery, proposes, inter alia, the need for African countries to establish effective legal and regulatory systems, facilitate the development of required information and communication technology (ICT) infrastructures and utilize ICT in specific sectors.
IV. PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS IN IMPLEMENTING AGENDA 21 AND THE LESSONS LEARNT
169. The Secretary General of UNCED remarked at the closure of the Earth Summit that the road from Rio would be longer and more challenging than the road to Rio. He is also quoted as saying that the world would never be the same after UNCED; diplomacy would never be the same and that the "prospects for our earth cannot-must not-be the same." The challenges which the region has continued to face in implementing Agenda 21 have been multifaceted. Some constraints and challenges are of global nature while others had their origins in the region. It is important, however, to point out that Agenda 21 is weakest on the very things that resolution 44/228 stressed most, namely financial and institutional arrangements, and technology transfer.
A. Constraints faced by the region
Lack of the anticipated financial resources
170. Despite affirming their commitment to reach the target of 0.7 per cent of GNP for ODA by the year 2000, only a few developed countries have achieved that goal. The spirit of Rio appears to be diminishing. ODA from OECD countries to Africa fell sharply from 0.33 per cent in 1992, to a mere 0.08 in 1995. Although the decline in ODA was global, other developing regions of the world experienced a surge in foreign private capital flows in contrast to Africa. The decline in ODA has limited the ability of most countries of the region to make a transition to sustainable development.
171. The debt burden for Africa has increased dramatically so that it is no longer possible for indebted countries to pay it without incurring a crippling load. African countries continue to spend a high proportion of their export earnings in servicing external debt leaving almost no resources for funding the transition to sustainable development. The huge debts are scaring away both private and foreign investors
172. Many factors conspire to reinforce the vicious circle of poverty in Africa and inhibit sustainable development; the rapid spread of AIDS, natural and man made disasters and calamities, armed conflicts and the resulting numbers of refugees and displaced persons, the deficiency in extension services in agriculture, forestry and animal husbandry, and continued scarcity of food, water and fuelwood.
Governance, conflicts and civil unrest
173. Sustainable development thrives where there is good governance including transparency, accountability, a participatory approach and decentralization. The restructuring of state bureaucracies would also be a positive move. The resources of the countries engaged in internal or external conflicts over the past decade were spent largely on arms and emergency relief measures for refugees and displaced persons, instead of being used for social development, economic growth and environmental protection. Wars and civil conflicts also cause destruction to infrastructure, and disruption to societies, so constraining new projects and resulting in development that is not sustainable.
Inadequate access to international markets
174. African countries have been unable to access international markets for their exports because of discriminatory and protection practices in international trade relations. Africa's share of global trade is only 2 per cent. Although globalization has resulted in the creation of bigger markets, the region has benefited least due to resource outflows and the unfavourable terms of trade. Globalization is giving priority attention to economic development at the expense of social development and environmental conservation.
Lack of progress on the agreed transfer of technology
175. The transfer of environmentally sound technologies to developing countries of Africa is a critical element for the implementation of Agenda 21. Such transfer requires collaborative arrangements between governments, NGOs, and academia as well as multinational cooperation from both industrialized and developing countries.
Inefficient domestic production
176. Production costs in Africa are high partly because of inadequate technology, an inadequate and inefficient transport infrastructure and low prices on the international markets for traditional African products. Despite the establishment of various economic grouping in the region, it would appear that there has been insufficient cooperation amongst them in the area of trade, which in turn, has constrained sustainable development.
Inadequate health care services and HIV/AIDS
177. The prevalence of disease and the HIV/AIDS pandemic has adversely affected not only the health sector but also other development sectors. The region requires some $US10-16 billion per year to cover health-care needs and $US2-10 billion per year to mitigate the impacts of the pandemic.
Increase in the frequency of natural disasters
178. The United Nations International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) that began in Yokohama, Japan, in 1994, had its roots in Principle 18 of the Rio Declaration. Since Rio, a number of counties have experienced natural disasters, including fires, floods, droughts, tropical storms, insect pests and landslides. some of which were climate induced. Poor people suffer more from natural disasters than the rich. UNEP data show that the number of natural disasters in sub-Saharan Africa between 1993-1997, was the highest globally. In many countries of the region, population pressure and poverty have forced farmers to cultivate marginal and vulnerable areas such as flood plains and hill slopes. Deforestation also exacerbates flash floods. According to GEO 2000, the 1997/98 El Nino caused heavy rains in Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Kenya. The negative impacts of natural disasters impede the achievement of sustainable development.
179. In the last ten years, there has been a dramatic revolution in the information and communication technology sectors globally, except in Africa. Limited human resources, poor basic infrastructure and weak policies have contributed to the slow progress of the region towards the digital revolution. Very few Africans have access to telephones, computers, fax services and information technology, so that the dissemination of information and data is hampered. Since Rio, dramatic developments in the field of information and communication technology have taken place in the North resulting in the reinforcement of its economic strength at the expense of the African region.
180. The UNECA Report Compact for African Recovery states that "if Africa is marginalized in the world of economy, it is hyper-marginalized in the world of information economy".
Unsustainable management and utilization of natural resources
181. The unsustainable management and utilization of natural resources has been exacerbated by poverty and population pressures. Large areas of savannah woodlands and tropical forests are cleared annually for export cash crops. Timber extraction is not balanced by reforestation. Slash and burn agriculture also causes potentially irreversible loss of fauna and flora. The destruction of water catchment ecosystems adversely affects the quality and quantity of water. Drought and desertification also exacerbate land degradation. All these processes have resulted in development that is not sustainable.
182. Over 70 per cent of rural households rely on fuelwood, agricultural waste and animal dung for energy. Deforestation and devegetation result in fuelwood scarcity meaning that women and girls walk long distances in search of fuel. Inadequate access to modern sources of energy such as electricity, particularly in the rural areas, has impeded social economic development. Although energy is crucial to the development process, there has been little effort to balance environmental imperatives and energy demands.
B. Impact of Agenda 21 on sustainable development in the region
183. The transition to sustainable development appears not to have been successful in Africa. In contrast, poverty, insecurity, pollution and food insufficiency have intensified, resulting in the impoverishment of countries, especially sub-Saharan Africa. Agenda 21 failed to make a dramatic impact on the livelihoods of the majority of the African people. Nevertheless, some countries have formulated policies and established institutions for the implementation of Agenda 21.
Establishment of Local Agenda 21
184. Agenda 21 reiterated the need to strengthen major groups such as business, NGOs and local authorities in implementing Agenda 21. At local level, a number of institutions have been involved in the implementation of sustainable development programmes, reflecting grassroots concern and involvement. Educational institutions, NGOs, the scientific community and the media have participated in public awareness campaigns. Business, industry and trade unions have also participated actively in promoting sustainable development. More importantly women and youth have played a prominent role in galvanizing communities for the conservation and sustainable utilization of natural resources. Local Agenda 21, therefore, constitute important building blocks in achieving the national goals of Agenda 21. One of the fundamental prerequisites for achieving sustainable development is broad public participation in decision making.
Harmonizing Africa's position on multilateral agreements
185. AMCEN promoted inter- and intra-African commitments on environment through facilitating Africa's participation in global negotiations and/or agreements. Global negotiations on the ownership, stewardship and management of the major natural resources were intensified in the pre-and post-UNCED period. These included the debate on forest principles. The issues addressed under the Rio conventions were important to Africa in terms of exploitation of the region's natural resource-base, technology transfer and international cooperation for environmental management. UNEP/AMCEN hosted expert ministerial-level consultations to facilitate the development of a common position for the fourth session of the Conference of the Parties of UNFCCC, the third session of the Conference of the Parties of the UNCCD and the fourth session of the IFF.
186. AMCEN, therefore, played a pivotal role in:
A. International environmental governance
187. UNEP was established by the GA following the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm, in June 1972, to catalyze and coordinate environmental matters within the United Nations system.
188. It is imperative to integrate fully environmental concerns in socio-economic planning processes, instead of environmental institutions being responsible for cleaning up the mess after the limits have been exceeded. The concept of sustainable development, therefore, links economic, social and environmental concerns.
189. Chapter 38 of Agenda 21 assigns responsibilities for implementation to United Nations organizations and agencies, national governments and other international and national groups. The United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development, created after Rio, serves as a forum for the discussion of environmental, social and economic issues. The Global Environment Facility was established as a mechanism for financing approved global environmental projects.
190. As a result of the Earth Summit, there has been a proliferation of actors in the field of environment and sustainable development that has altered drastically the scope of the international environment agenda. Although international legal instruments exist, the compliance and enforcement mechanisms are weak and fragmented and this undermines the effectiveness of the agreements. Currently, there is little coordination in the implementation of international agreements. The institutions charged with their implementation lack adequate resources and in some instances, receive marginal political support. The growing number of environmental institutions places stress on current systems and the ability to manage them. In addition to increasing environmental security, coordination, compliance and capacity building should be entrenched in the management of multilateral environmental agreements.
B. The role of the African Union in dealing with the region's crises
191. The Meeting of the OAU Heads of State and Government, held in Lusaka, Zambia, in July 2001, established the African Union, modeled on the European Union. The African Union replaced the OAU, which was established in 1963.
192. The Constitutive Act of the Union was adopted in Lome, Togo, on 11 July 2000, and entered into force on 26 May 2001, 30 days after the deposit of the 36th Instrument of Ratification with the General Secretariat. It is expected that the Union will have the capacity to deal with crises facing the continent in the political, economic and social fields. For the Union to be an effective instrument in the transformation of the continent there is need to endow it with the necessary powers and resources. Member States, therefore, are expected to devolve limited sovereignty to the Union to make it more effective.
193. The regional economic communities, which constitute the main vehicles for promoting integration, are to remain the main pillars of the Union and will be fully involved in its operationalization. The mandates of the specialized agencies, as well as OAU Offices are to be reviewed in the context of the expectations of the Union.
194. Article 14 of the Constitutive Act relates to the establishment of specialized technical committees, while Article 19 establishes financial institutions namely, the existing African Development Bank, the African Monetary Fund and the African Investment Bank.
195. The Lusaka Meeting also adopted the New African Initiative, mentioned earlier. The initiative consists of the merger of the Millennium Partnership for the African Recovery Programme (MAP) and the Omega Plan. It contains seven main chapters which address Africa in today's world, the new political will of African leaders, the African strategy for achieving sustainable development in the 21st century, a programme of action, a new global partnership, and the implementation of the New African Initiative.
C. The new development agenda for Africa
196. In the context of the WSSD process, the inter-governmental organizations (AMU, IGAD/COMESA, SADC, ECCAS and ECOWAS/CILSS met during September and early October 2001, to assess progress towards sustainable development in Africa since Rio and to propose a new development agenda for further implementation of Africa's priorities. The priority issues of common concern to all the subregions are poverty eradication, financing sustainable development, regional and international trade and the management of natural resources. The matrix also shows that at least four subregions identified governance, human rights and conflict prevention as important issues.
197. The following is a summary of the way forward.
198. The countries of the region are committed to poverty eradication through the formulation and implementation of policies condusive to the enhancement of domestic savings, as well as allowing external resource inflows such as foreign direct investments. Some countries are currently implementing poverty reduction strategies. As poverty reduction is central to sustainable development, there is need to direct attention and resources to the poverty challenges in the region. Thus African countries face certain needs:
199. The international community is called upon to:
200. Investment in education, both secondary and university, will pay for itself in the long run. African countries need to establish or strengthen existing institutions to enhance their ability to respond to new and longer-term challenges, instead of concentrating on immediate problems. The policy measures for education and human resources development entail, inter alia:
201. For these policy measures to be realized, Africa's partners will need to enter into long-term partnerships with African Governments and civil society, to provide the necessary assistance, including increased financial commitment to education.
Health care: infectious diseases
202. A reduction in the disease burden of the region demands a broad development approach, where health sector reforms go hand in hand with poverty reduction, conflict prevention and community participation. An improvement in the health of the African people may be one of the most effective ways of contributing to economic growth.
203. Achieving the health goals of African countries will require:
204. In view of the toll in human suffering and on sustainable development, African Governments need to make HIV/AIDS a top national priority and to undertake, among other things, to:
205. HIV/AIDS does not respect political boundaries and hence there is a need for regional partnership to combat the pandemic. Africa's partners are urged to enter into partnership with African Governments, civil society and pharmaceutical companies to combat HIV/AIDS. In this regard, they should:
206. The region appeals to the international community to support countries of the region in their efforts to provide health services. More specifically, resources are needed for public health programmes including health education, the control of tryponosomiasis, tuberculosis and malaria and combating the HIV/AIDS scourge.
Mobilizing resources for sustainable development
207. In order to make the HIPC initiative more effective in improving the standard of living of participating countries, there is a need to review the terms and conditions of access. In addition, the Johannesburg Summit is called upon to:
Reversing environmental deterioration, including the sound management of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and their resources
208. Fresh water: The agricultural sector, as the largest user of water resources in the region, accounts for 88 per cent of total water use. African governments will need to:
209. In view of the fact that more than 300 million people in the region lack access to safe water:
210. Marine ecosystems and resources: African Governments, through the regional conventions, have resolved to take measures to protect and manage sustainably the coastal and marine ecosystems and their resources. There is, however, an urgent need to strengthen the enforcement and compliance of international and regional agreements relevant to the protection and management of marine and coastal ecosystems and the resources therein :
211. Biodiversity and Forests: African Governments, with the support of the international community are called upon to, inter alia:
212. Biosafety: In order to strengthen activities in this field:
213. Climate Change: In line with global worries on this issue, the African region is concerned about the predicted climate change impacts, and while welcoming the progress made so far on targets and timeframes reached on UNFCCC urges the rapid ratification of the Kyoto Protocol.
214. Industry: Since Africa is the only region where most national economies have a very narrow industrial base, African countries will need to:
215. Toxic Wastes: In order to pursue the region's agenda in this area:
- Ratify or accede to the Bamako convention, if they have not already done so;
- Strive to develop the skilled personnel and testing equipment required for the effective detection and monitoring of the movements of hazardous wastes;
- Strengthen their institutions and enact legislation in order to implement the convention effectively.
216. Development planning: In this area, and in order for environmental perspectives to be integrated fully in development planning process:
- Ensuring that public enquiries and EIA are being carried out routinely to assist decision makers in siting development projects, such as large scale hydro-electric and irrigation schemes;
- Ensuring that deliberate attempts are made to raise public awareness and ensure the participation of local people in the design and implementation of projects;
- Enacting, harmonizing and enforcing legislation on environment/development issues;
- Analyzing the impact of macro-economic policies on environment and vice-versa; and
- Introducing resource accounting and carrying out sustainable development audits.
217. Africa needs to bridge the digital divide in order to be able to participate in information technology.
- Strengthen and/or establish new specialized research and technology development
institutes as well as promote education and scientific research;
- Adapt technology to local needs and reintroduce and use indigenous skills and technologies wherever necessary;
- Foster links with international research institutions and also draws on the expertise of local scholars.
218. Globalization has marginalised most African countries due to their inability to compete in an unfair, non-transparent and discriminatory trading system. In order to stimulate this vital sector:
- Develop higher value-added resource-based industries;
- Broaden the production base, on a complementary rather than competitive basis;
- Pursue regional trade agreements in view of the small size of most African economies;
- Forge ahead with the integration of the region in order to increase the continent's share of global trade. It is to be expected that Africa's integration will also facilitate the free movement of peoples and goods;
- Integrate environmental and resource management policies that take into account the effects on sustainable development into trade liberalization programmes.
- Address issues pertaining to African access to international markets;
- Promote an open, non-discriminatory, equitable, transparent and predictable multilateral trading system.
Promoting the role of civil society
219. To be successful, development efforts must be participatory. Thus:
- Promulgate and/or strengthen, subject to country specific conditions, any legislative measures necessary to enable the establishment of NGOs or consultative groups and to ensure the right of NGOs to protect public interests through legal process;
- Address the crucial need to strengthen the role of local authorities, NGOs and the business community in mobilizing and educating the public in protecting and conserving environmental resources such as water, land and vegetation;
- Fully incorporate business and industry into national activities, in view of their role in increasing prosperity but also in causing environmental pollution;
- Ensure awareness raising among all sectors of society of the need to protect the environment and on new means of helping to do so.
International environmental governance
220. In the debate on the need to improve the international environmental governance structures, there is a need to address the current deficiencies in coordination of environmental policies, capacity building in developing countries and the further implementation of international environmental standards. Africa should:
- A single centralized political council that meets regularly to pronounce on the policy environment;
- A single coordinating organization for environmental issues that has strong relations to the CSD, GEF and multilateral agencies;
- A clustering of multilateral environmental agreements based on cross-cutting issues and joint programmes;
- Sustainable resources and funding mechanisms to maintain the system.
Promoting peace, democracy and human rights
221. The road to good governance requires the establishment of structures of political representation, so as to ensure the inclusion of all national stakeholders. Furthermore, actions that promote transparency and accountability need to be promoted. Other critical aspects in good governance include the availability of public information on the working of government, participation by civil society and the private sector in the policy-making process, gender representation and participation in decision-making processes at all levels, improved information processing and dissemination, and the strengthening of research institutions for the provision of in-depth analytical studies of the consequences of proposed legislation.
222. There is a need to develop indices for monitoring good governance. These indices may include equitable representation, free access to information and institutional effectiveness. The latter encompasses the independence of the judiciary, executive respect for the rule of law, effectiveness of law enforcement, legislative proficiency, existence of transparency and accountability, participation of civil society and the private sector in policy formulation and implementation and the effective delivery of services to poor citizens.
Earth Summit, Agenda 21: The United Nations Programme of Action from Rio, United Nations Department of Public Information DPI/1344/Rev.1-97-01888 - February 1997 - 5M.
Proposals for Policy and Institutional Change
Eighth Session of AMCEN Ministerial Conference, Abuja, Nigeria, April 2000.
Proposals for a Medium-Term Programme (2000-2004)
Eighth Session of AMCEN Ministerial Conference, Abuja, Nigeria, April 2000.
Global Environmental Outlook 2000, UNEP, Earthscan
Publications Ltd. London, 1999.
Transforming Africa's Economies: Overview, Economic Commission for Africa, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia, 2001.
The Challenges of Financing Development in Africa
By Prof. S. Ibi Ajayi: Discussion Paper Series ESPD/DPS/99/2
Paper prepared on behalf of ECA, 1999.
Finance for Development in Africa: An Issue Paper for Eighth Session of the ECA Conference of Ministers of Finance 21-22 November 2000, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
The Challenge of Poverty Reduction and Sustainability
Economic Report on Africa, ECA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 1999.
Africa and the Emerging Global Trade Issues
Proceedings of an Ad Hoc Experts Group Meeting on WTO - Related Issues, ECA, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia, 1998.
We the Peoples: The Role of United Nations in the 21
Century
Statement of the Secretary General of the UNITED NATIONS at the Millennium Summit,
New York, April 2000.
The World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future, Oxford University Press, 1987.
Land Degradation: Development and Breakdown of Terrestrial Environments, By Barrow, C.J. Cambridge University Press, 1991.
Social Aspects of Sustainable Dryland Management (Stiles, Daniel Editor) Published on behalf of UNEP by John Wiley and Sons, 1995.
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa, UNEP, 1996.
Biennial Work Programme for Implementation of the Nairobi
Convention 2000 -2001 (UNEP).
The Fair Share Water Strategy for Sustainable Development in Africa, UNEP.
Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers - Progress in
Implementation
World Bank and International Monetary Fund, Washington, April 2001.
The National Summit on Africa, Claiming the 21st Century: Africa's Agenda by K.Y. Amoako, Washington, February 2000.
Africa: The World Bank Annual Report 2000, Washington, 2000.
A New African Initiative: Merger of the Millennium Partnership for the African Recovery Programme (MAP) and Omega Plan. OAU Summit, Lusaka, Zambia, July 2001.
Report of the Open-ended Ad Hoc Working Group on the Causes of Conflict and the Promotion of Durable Peace and Sustainable Development in Africa, (A/AC.258/6) New York, September 2001.
Compact for African Recovery: Operationalizing the Millennium Partnership for African Recovery ECA, Addis Ababa, April 2001.
Multilateral Environmental Agreements: Relevance, Implications and Benefits to African States (UNEP (ROA) and SIDA, 1996.
Global Ministerial Environment Forum: Linkages Among and Support to Environmental and Environment-Related Conventions. The Role of UNEP in the Development of Guidelines on Compliance and Enforcement of Multilateral Environment Agreements UNEP/GC. 21/INF/5, December 2000.
The Case for a World Environment Organization, Biermann, Frank: Environment, Volume 42, (No.9), November 2000.
European Commission: Communication from the Commission to the Council and European Parliament: Ten Years after Rio: Preparing for the World Summit on Sustainable Development (COM (2001) 53 final) Brussels, February 2001.
European Union: Global Environmental Governance - Conclusions, 2321st Council Meeting Brussels, December 2000.
G8, Communiqué: G8 Environment Ministers Meeting in Trieste, Italy, March 2001.
Norway, Chairman's Summary of the Bergen Informal
Ministerial Meeting (Bergen, Norway, September 2000 by H.E. Siri Bjerke, Minister of the
Environment of Norway.
Climate Change: Africa and COP 6 bis ACTS Innovation Volume 8 No. 1, May 2001.
Report of Regional Roundtable for Africa, Cairo, Egypt, 25-27 June 2001.
Inter-linkages among Multilateral Environment Agreements, Felix Dodds, London.
Climate Change and Sustainable Development. African Region,
UNFCCC-Secretariat.
UNIDO, "African Industry 2000: the Challenge of Going Global" Vienna, 1999.
UNIDO, "Building Productive Capacity for Poverty Alleviation in Least Developed Countries (LDCs): The Role of Industry", Vienna, 2001.
Table1: Flows of aid and private capital to African countries and the debt crisis.
| Region And Country | Official
Development Assistance(ODA) received (Net disbursements) a |
Net
foreign direct investment
|
Total
debt service
|
|||||
| Total US$ m |
Per capita US$ |
As % of GDP | ||||||
| 1999 | 1999 | 1990 | 1999 | 1990 | 1999 | 1990 | 1999 | |
| North Africa | 437 |
24.5 |
8.3 |
5 |
0.6 |
1.1 |
28.1 |
20.2 |
| 1.Algeria | 88.9 |
3 |
0.4 |
0.2 |
0 |
(.) |
63.4 |
37.4 |
| 2.Egypt | 1,579.10 | 25.2 |
12.6 |
1.8 |
1.7 |
1.2 |
22.3 |
9 |
| 3.Libya | 7.3 |
1.3 |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
| 4.Mauritania | 218.5 |
84.1 |
23.3 |
22.8 |
0.7 |
0.2 |
29.9 |
28.4 |
| 5.Morocco | 678 |
24 |
4.1 |
1.9 |
0.6 |
(.) |
21.5 |
24.4 |
| 6.Sudan | 242.9 |
8.4 |
6.2 |
2.5 |
0 |
3.8 |
7.5 |
6.5 |
| 7.Tunisia | 244.5 |
25.9 |
3.2 |
1.2 |
0.6 |
1.7 |
24.5 |
15.9 |
| West Africa | 249.6 |
49.2 |
21.5 |
10.7 |
0.6 |
1.6 |
18.5 |
15.4 |
| 1.Benin | 210.8 |
34.5 |
14.5 |
8.9 |
0.1 |
1.3 |
8.2 |
10.9 |
| 2.Burkina Faso | 398.1 |
36.2 |
12 |
15.4 |
0 |
0.4 |
6.8 |
15.7 |
| 3.Cape Verde | 136.4 |
318.8 |
31.8 |
23.5 |
0 |
2.6 |
4.8 |
10.6 |
| 4.Cote d'Ivoire | 447 |
28.8 |
6.4 |
4 |
0.4 |
3.1 |
35.4 |
26.2 |
| 5.Gambia | 33.1 |
26.5 |
31.3 |
8.4 |
0 |
3.6 |
22.2 |
8.5 |
| 6.Ghana | 607.5 |
32.3 |
9.6 |
7.8 |
0.3 |
0.2 |
36.9 |
19.9 |
| 7.Guinea | 237.6 |
32.8 |
10.4 |
6.8 |
0.6 |
1.8 |
20 |
16.1 |
| 8.Guinea Bissau | 52.4 |
44.2 |
52.7 |
24 |
0.8 |
1.4 |
31 |
16.4 |
| 9.Liberia | --- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
| 10.Mali | 354 |
33.4 |
19.9 |
13.8 |
-0.3 |
0.7 |
12.3 |
14.3 |
| 11.Niger | 187.1 |
17.8 |
16 |
9.3 |
(.) |
0.7 |
17.4 |
16.8 |
| 12.Nigeria | 151.6 |
1.2 |
0.9 |
0.4 |
2.1 |
2.9 |
22.6 |
6 |
| 13.Senegal | 534.3 |
57.5 |
14.4 |
11.2 |
1 |
1.3 |
20 |
16.1 |
| 14. Sierra Leone | 73.5 |
14.9 |
6.8 |
11 |
3.6 |
0.1 |
10.1 |
29.9 |
| 15.Togo | 71.3 |
15.6 |
16 |
5.1 |
0 |
2.1 |
11.9 |
7.7 |
| Central Africa | 157.8 |
36.9 |
15.8 |
6.4 |
1.4 |
4.1 |
15.7 |
11.4 |
| 1.Cameroon | 433.8 |
29.5 |
4 |
4.7 |
-1 |
0.4 |
22.5 |
24.3 |
| 2.Central African Rep. | 117.2 |
33.1 |
16.8 |
11.1 |
0.1 |
1.2 |
13.2 |
12.1 |
| 3.Chad | 187.8 |
25.1 |
18 |
12.3 |
0 |
1 |
4.4 |
10.3 |
| 4.Congo,Pop,Rep. | 140.3 |
49.1 |
7.8 |
6.3 |
0 |
0.2 |
35.3 |
1.4 |
| 5.Equatorial Guinea | 20.2 |
45.6 |
46 |
2.9 |
8.3 |
17.3 |
12.1 |
0.8 |
| 6.Gabon | 47.6 |
39.3 |
2.2 |
1.1 |
1.2 |
4.6 |
6.4 |
19.3 |
| 7.Sao Tome | --- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
| Region And Country | Official
Development Assistance(ODA) received (Net disbursements) a |
Net foreign direct investment
|
Total debt service
|
|||||
| Total US$ m |
Per capita US$ |
As % of GDP | ||||||
| 1999 | 1999 | 1990 | 1999 | 1990 | 1999 | 1990 | 1999 | |
| Eastern Africa | 336.6 |
32.1 |
19.3 |
11.8 |
0.1 |
0.9 |
31.2 |
19.4 |
| 1.Burundi | 74.2 |
11.1 |
23.3 |
10.4 |
0.1 |
(.) |
43.4 |
45.6 |
| 2.Comoros | 21.5 |
39.4 |
18.1 |
11.1 |
-0.4 |
0.5 |
2.3 |
16.1 |
| 3.Congo, Dem. Rep. | 132.3 |
2.7 |
9.6 |
--- |
-0.1 |
(.) e |
13.5 |
1.2 e |
| 4.Djibouti | 75 |
115.8 |
45.6 |
--- |
0 |
1.2 e |
--- |
--- |
| 5.Eritrea | 148.5 |
37.2 |
--- |
23 |
--- |
0 |
--- |
1.9 |
| 6.Ethiopia | 633.4 |
10.1 |
14.8 |
9.8 |
0.2 |
1.4 |
34.9 |
16.8 |
| 7.Kenya | 308 |
10.5 |
13.9 |
2.9 |
0.7 |
0.1 |
35.4 |
26.7 |
| 8.Madagascar | 358.2 |
23.8 |
12.9 |
9.6 |
0.7 |
1.6 |
45.5 |
17.1 |
| 9.Rwanda | 372.9 |
44.9 |
11.3 |
19.1 |
0.3 |
0.1 |
14 |
29.6 |
| 10.Seychelles | --- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
| 11.Somalia | --- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
| 12.Tanzania | 989.6 |
30.1 |
27.5 |
11.3 |
0 |
2.1 |
32.9 |
15.6 |
| 13.Uganda | 589.8 |
27.5 |
15.5 |
9.2 |
0 |
3.5 |
58.9 |
23.7 |
| Southern Africa | 245.3 |
36.1 |
13.1 |
6.4 |
1.3 |
7.2 |
13.8 |
16.2 |
| 1.Angola | 387.5 |
31.4 |
2.6 |
4.5 |
-3.3 |
28.9 |
8.1 |
21.1 |
| 2.Botswana | 60.9 |
38.3 |
3.9 |
1 |
2.5 |
0.6 |
4.4 |
2.4 |
| 3.Lesotho | 31.1 |
14.8 |
22.8 |
3.6 |
2.7 |
18.7 |
4.2 |
9.4 |
| 4.Malawi | 445.8 |
41.3 |
27.9 |
24.6 |
0 |
3.3 |
29.3 |
11.4 |
| 5.Mauritius | 41.5 |
35.3 |
3.4 |
1 |
1.6 |
1.2 |
8.8 |
9.7 |
| 6.Mozambique | 118.4 |
6.8 |
39.9 |
3 |
0.4 |
9.7 |
26.2 |
20 |
| 7.Namibia | 177.6 |
104.4 |
5.2 |
5.8 |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
| 8.South Africa | 539.3 |
12.8 |
--- |
0.4 |
-0.1 |
1 |
--- |
13.9 |
| 9.Swaziland | 28.9 |
28.4 |
6.3 |
2.4 |
3.5 |
2.7 |
5.7 |
2.6 |
| 10.Zambia | 623.4 |
63.1 |
14.6 |
19.8 |
6.2 |
5.2 |
14.9 |
46.6 |
| 11.Zimbabwe | 244.2 |
20.5 |
3.9 |
4.4 |
-0.1 |
1.1 |
23.1 |
25.3 |
Source: UNDP Human Development Report 2001.
No information was given for Liberia, Sao Tome and Principe, Seychelles and Somalia
Table 2: Poverty indicators for African countries.
| Country | Human Poverty Index (HPI-1) |
Population below income poverty line(%) | ||
| Rank | Value(%) | $ 1 a day (1993PPP US$) | National poverty line | |
| 1983-99b | 1984-99b | |||
| High human development | ||||
No African country |
||||
| Medium human development | ||||
| 1.Libya | 27 |
16.7 |
--- |
--- |
| 2.Mauritius | 16 |
11.5 |
--- |
10.6 |
| 3.Tunisia | --- |
--- |
<2.0 |
14 |
| 4.Cape Verde | 36 |
20.9 |
--- |
--- |
| 5.South Africa | 33 |
18.7 |
12 |
--- |
| 6.Algeria | 40 |
23.5 |
<2 |
23 |
| 7.Egypt | 50 |
31.7 |
3.1 |
23 |
| 8.Gabon | --- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
| 9.Equatorial Guinea | --- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
| 10.Namibia | 56 |
34.5 |
35 |
--- |
| 11.Morocco | 62 |
36.4 |
<2 |
19 |
| 12.Swaziland | --- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
| 13.Botswana | --- |
--- |
33 |
--- |
| 14.Zimbabwe | 61 |
36.2 |
36 |
26 |
| 15.Ghana | 46 |
29.1 |
39 |
31 |
| 16.Lesotho | 42 |
25.8 |
43 |
49 |
| 17.Kenya | 51 |
31.8 |
27 |
42 |
| 18.Comoros | 47 |
29.9 |
--- |
--- |
| 19.Cameroon | 49 |
31.1 |
--- |
40 |
| 20.Congo | 48 |
30.7 |
--- |
--- |
| Low human development* | ||||
| 21.Togo | 63 |
38.3 |
--- |
32 |
| 22.Madagascar | 64 |
38.6 |
63 |
70 |
| 23.Nigeria | 59 |
36.1 |
70 |
34 |
| 24.Djibouti | 57 |
34.7 |
--- |
--- |
| 25.Sudan | 58 |
34.8 |
--- |
--- |
| 26.Mauritania | 82 |
47.2 |
29 |
57 |
| 27.Tanzania | 53 |
32.4 |
20 |
51 |
| 28.Uganda | 69 |
41 |
--- |
44 |
| 29.Congo, Dem., Rep. | 67 |
40 |
--- |
--- |
| 30.Zambia | 68 |
40 |
64 |
86 |
| 31.Cote d'Ivoire | 72 |
42.9 |
12 |
--- |
| 32.Senegal | 80 |
45.9 |
26 |
--- |
| 33.Angola | --- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
| 34.Benin | 79 |
45.8 |
--- |
33 |
| 35.Eritrea | 75 |
44 |
--- |
--- |
| 36.Gambia | 85 |
49.6 |
54 |
64 |
| 37.Guinea | --- |
--- |
--- |
40 |
| 38.Malawi | 74 |
43.4 |
--- |
54 |
| 39.Rwanda | 76 |
44.2 |
36 |
51 |
| 40.Mali | 83 |
47.8 |
73 |
--- |
| 41.Central African Rep. | 81 |
46.1 |
67 |
--- |
| 42.chad | 87 |
53.1 |
--- |
64 |
| 43.Guinea-Bissau | 86 |
49.6 |
--- |
--- |
| 44.Mozambique | 84 |
48.3 |
38 |
--- |
| 45.Ethiopia | 88 |
57.2 |
31 |
--- |
| 46.Burkina Faso | --- |
--- |
61 |
--- |
| 47.Burundi | --- |
--- |
--- |
36 |
| 48.Niger | 90 |
63.6 |
61 |
63 |
| 49.Sierra Leone | --- |
--- |
57 |
68 |
Source: UNDP Human Development Report 2001.
No country was placed in the high human development index;
20 and 29 countries were placed in the medium and low human
development categories, respectively.
* The other developing countries included under the low human development index are Pakistan, Bhutan, Lao, Bangladesh, Yemen and Haiti.
NOTE: No information was provided for the following countries: Somalia, Sao Tome and Principe, Liberia and Seychelles.
Table 3: Occurrence of natural disasters in Africa: January 1992 - July 2001.
| Natural Disasters | Number of countries affected |
| Floods | 28 |
| Drought | 8 |
| Earthquake | 6 |
| Cyclone | 3 |
| Fire | 1 |
| Locust | 1 |
| Volcanic eruptions | 1 |
| Hail storm | 1 |
| Chemical accidents | 1 |
Countries repeatedly affected by natural disasters.
| Country | Floods | Earthquake | Cyclone | Drought |
| 1.Algeria | 3 |
|||
| 2.Angola | 2 |
|||
| 3.Benin | 5 |
|||
| 4. Botswana | 2 |
|||
| 5. Congo Dem., Rep | 4 |
|||
| 6.Djibouti | 2 |
|||
| 7.Egypt | 2 |
|||
| 8.Ethiopia | 3 |
2 |
||
| 9.Gambia | 2 |
|||
| 10.Ghana | 3 |
|||
| 11.Madagascar | 5 |
|||
| 12.Malawi | 2 |
|||
| 13.Mauritus | 2 |
|||
| 14.Morocco | 2 |
|||
| 15.Mozambique | 3 |
|||
| 16.Somalia | 2 |
|||
| 17.Sudan | 3 |
|||
| 18.Tanzania | 4 |
|||
| 19.Togo | 3 |
|||
| 20.Zambia | 2 |
|||
| 21.Zimbabwe | 2 |
Source: www.reliefweb.int/ and www.wfp.org
Table 4: Survival: progress and setbacks of African countries.
| Region and country | Life expectancy at
birth ( Years) |
Infant mortality
birth rate (per 1,000 live births) |
under- five
mortality rate (per 1,000 live births) |
|||
| 1970-75b | 1995-2000b | 1970 | 1999 | 1970 | 1999 | |
| North Africa | 50.7 |
63.8 |
128 |
50 |
199 |
70 |
| 1.Algeria | 54.5 |
68.9 |
123 |
36 |
192 |
41 |
| 2.Egypt | 52.1 |
66.3 |
157 |
41 |
235 |
52 |
| 3.Libya | 52.9 |
70 |
105 |
19 |
160 |
22 |
| 4.Mauritania | 43.5 |
50.5 |
150 |
120 |
250 |
183 |
| 5.Morocco | 52.9 |
66.6 |
119 |
45 |
184 |
53 |
| 6.Sudan | 43.7 |
55 |
104 |
67 |
172 |
109 |
| 7.Tunisia | 55.6 |
69.5 |
135 |
24 |
201 |
30 |
| West Africa | 42.6 |
49.6 |
162 |
105 |
275 |
174 |
| 1.Benin | 44 |
53.5 |
149 |
99 |
252 |
156 |
| 2.Burkina Faso | 41.5 |
45.3 |
163 |
106 |
290 |
199 |
| 3.Cape Verde | 57.5 |
68.9 |
87 |
54 |
123 |
73 |
| 4.Cote d'Ivoire | 45.4 |
47.7 |
158 |
102 |
239 |
171 |
| 5.Gambia | 37 |
45.4 |
183 |
61 |
319 |
75 |
| 6.Ghana | 49.9 |
56.3 |
111 |
63 |
186 |
101 |
| 7.Guinea | 37.3 |
46.5 |
197 |
115 |
345 |
181 |
| 8.Guinea Bissau | 36.5 |
44.1 |
186 |
128 |
316 |
200 |
| 9.Liberia | --- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
| 10.Mali | 42.9 |
50.9 |
221 |
143 |
391 |
235 |
| 11.Niger | 38.2 |
44.2 |
197 |
162 |
330 |
275 |
| 12.Nigeria | 44 |
51.3 |
120 |
112 |
201 |
187 |
| 13.Senegal | 41.8 |
52.3 |
164 |
68 |
279 |
118 |
| 14. Sierra Leone | 35 |
37.3 |
206 |
182 |
363 |
316 |
| 15.Togo | 45.5 |
51.3 |
128 |
80 |
216 |
143 |
| Central Africa | 43.3 |
48.8 |
138 |
100 |
231 |
156 |
| 1.Cameroon | 45.7 |
50 |
127 |
95 |
215 |
154 |
| 2.Central African Rep. | 43 |
44.3 |
149 |
113 |
248 |
172 |
| 3.Chad | 39 |
45.2 |
149 |
118 |
252 |
198 |
| 4.Congo,Pop,Rep. | 46.7 |
50.9 |
100 |
81 |
160 |
108 |
| 5.Equatorial Guinea | 40.5 |
50 |
165 |
105 |
281 |
160 |
| 6.Gabon | 45 |
52.4 |
140 |
85 |
232 |
143 |
| 7.Sao Tome | --- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
| Region and country |
Life expectancy at
birth ( Years) |
Infant mortality
birth rate (per 1,000 live births) |
under- five
mortality rate (per 1,000 live births) |
|||
| 1970-75b | 1995-2000b | 1970 | 1999 | 1970 | 1999 | |
| Eastern Africa | 45.4 |
48 |
141 |
95 |
204 |
148 |
| 1.Burundi | 44 |
40.6 |
135 |
106 |
228 |
176 |
| 2.Comoros | 48.9 |
58.8 |
159 |
64 |
215 |
86 |
| 3.Congo, Dem. Rep. | 46 |
50.5 |
147 |
128 |
245 |
207 |
| 4.Djibouti | 41 |
45.5 |
160 |
104 |
241 |
149 |
| 5.Eritrea | 44.3 |
51.5 |
150 |
66 |
225 |
105 |
| 6.Ethiopia | 41.8 |
44.5 |
160 |
118 |
239 |
176 |
| 7.Kenya | 51 |
52.2 |
96 |
76 |
156 |
118 |
| 8.Madagascar | 44.9 |
51.6 |
184 |
95 |
285 |
156 |
| 9.Rwanda | 44.6 |
39.4 |
124 |
110 |
210 |
180 |
| 10.Seychelles | --- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
| 11.Somalia | --- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
| 12.Tanzania | 46.5 |
51.1 |
129 |
90 |
218 |
141 |
| 13.Uganda | 46.4 |
41.9 |
110 |
83 |
185 |
131 |
| Southern Africa | 49.1 |
48 |
122 |
85 |
193 |
131 |
| 1.Angola | 38 |
44.6 |
180 |
172 |
300 |
295 |
| 2.Botswana | 53.2 |
44.4 |
99 |
46 |
142 |
59 |
| 3.Lesotho | 49.5 |
51.2 |
125 |
93 |
190 |
134 |
| 4.Malawi | 41 |
40.7 |
189 |
132 |
330 |
211 |
| 5.Mauritius | 62.9 |
70.7 |
64 |
19 |
86 |
23 |
| 6.Mozambique | 42.5 |
40.6 |
163 |
127 |
278 |
203 |
| 7.Namibia | 49.4 |
45.1 |
104 |
56 |
155 |
70 |
| 8.South Africa | 53.5 |
56.7 |
80 |
54 |
115 |
69 |
| 9.Swaziland | 47.3 |
50.8 |
140 |
62 |
209 |
90 |
| 10.Zambia | 47.2 |
40.5 |
109 |
112 |
181 |
202 |
| 11.Zimbabwe | 56 |
42.9 |
86 |
60 |
138 |
90 |
Source: UNDP Human Development Report 2001.
No information was given for Liberia, Sao Tome and Principe, Seychelles and Somalia.
Table 5: Leading health crises and challenges of African countries.
| Region and country | Undernourished people | People living with HIV/AIDS | Malaria Cases (per 100,000 people) |
Tuberculosis C2ases (per 100,000 people)d |
||
| (As % of total population) 1996/98 |
Adult (%age 15-49) 1999b |
Women (age 15-49) 1999b |
Children (age 0-14) 1999b |
1997c | 1998 | |
| North Africa | 9 |
0.25 |
--- |
--- |
1,321 |
66 |
| 1.Algeria | 5 |
0.07j |
--- |
--- |
1 |
51 |
| 2.Egypt | 4 |
0.02j |
--- |
--- |
(.) |
19 |
| 3.Libya | --- |
0.05 j |
--- |
--- |
--- |
29 |
| 4.Mauritania | 13 |
0.52 |
3500 |
260 |
--- |
154i |
| 5.Morocco | 5 |
0.03j |
--- |
--- |
1 |
106 |
| 6.Sudan | 18 |
0.99j |
--- |
--- |
5,283 |
80 |
| 7.Tunisia | --- |
0.04j |
--- |
--- |
--- |
24 |
| West Africa | 24 |
3.72 |
189,915 |
16,460 |
9,276 |
63 |
| 1.Benin | 14 |
2.45 |
37,000 |
3,000 |
11,918 |
41 |
| 2.Burkina Faso | 32 |
6.44 |
180,000 |
20,000 |
--- |
18 |
| 3.Cape Verde | --- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
5 |
50 |
| 4.Cote d'Ivoire | 14 |
10.76 |
400,000 |
32,000 |
6,990 |
104 |
| 5.Gambia | 16 |
1.95 |
6,600 |
520 |
27,369 |
114i |
| 6.Ghana | 10 |
3.60 |
180,000 |
14,000 |
11,941 |
53 |
| 7.Guinea | 29 |
1.54 |
29,000 |
2,700 |
10,951 |
65 |
| 8.Guinea Bissau | --- |
2.50 |
7,300 |
560 |
--- |
156g |
| 9.Liberia | --- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
| 10.Mali | 32 |
2.03 |
53,000 |
5,000 |
3,688 |
39 |
| 11.Niger | 46 |
1.35 |
34,000 |
3,300 |
10,026 |
34 |
| 12.Nigeria | 8 |
5.06 |
1,400,000 |
120,000 |
593 |
19 |
| 13.Senegal | 23 |
1.77 |
40,000 |
3,300 |
--- |
94 |
| 14. Sierra Leone | 43 |
2.99 |
36,000 |
3,300 |
--- |
72 |
| 15.Togo | 18 |
5.98 |
66,000 |
6,300 |
--- |
28 |
| Central Africa | 30 |
5.90 |
87,760 |
6,630 |
3,240 |
94 |
| 1.Cameroon | 29 |
7.73 |
290,000 |
22,000 |
4,613 |
35 |
| 2.Central African Rep. | 41 |
13.84 |
130,00 |
8,900 |
--- |
140 |
| 3.Chad | 38 |
2.69 |
49,000 |
4,000 |
4,843 |
38 |
| 4.Congo,Pop,Rep. | 32 |
6.43 |
45,000 |
4,000 |
350 |
139 |
| 5.Equatorial guinea | --- |
0.51 |
560 |
<100 |
--- |
97 |
| 6.Gabon | 8 |
4.16 |
12,000 |
780 |
3,152 |
118 |
| 7.Sao Tome | --- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
| Eastern Africa | 48 |
7.59 |
534,978 |
48,439 |
6,759 |
167 |
| 1.Burundi | 68 |
11.32 |
190,000 |
19,000 |
--- |
101 |
| 2.Comoros | --- |
0.12j |
--- |
--- |
2,422f |
23g |
| 3.Congo, Dem. Rep. | 61 |
5.07 |
600,000 |
53,000 |
--- |
120 |
| 4.Djibouti | --- |
11.75 |
19,000 |
1,500 |
700 |
597 |
| 5.Eritrea | 65 |
2.87 j |
--- |
--- |
--- |
218 |
| 6.Ethiopia | 49 |
10.63 |
1,600,000 | 150,000 |
--- |
116 |
| 7.Kenya | 43 |
13.95 |
1,100,000 |
78,000 |
--- |
169 |
| 8.Madagascar | 40 |
0.15 |
5,800 |
450 |
--- |
97 |
| 9.Rwanda | 39 |
11.21 |
210,000 |
22,000 |
20,310 |
93 |
| 10.Seychelles | --- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
| 11.Somalia | --- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
| 12.Tanzania | 41 |
8.09 |
670,000 |
59,000 |
3,602 |
160 |
| 13.Uganda | 30 |
8.3 |
420,000 |
53,000 |
--- |
142 |
| Southern Africa | 32 |
18.28 |
511,400 |
31,950 |
15,939 |
286 |
| 1.Angola | 43 |
2.78 |
82,000 |
7,900 |
--- |
102 |
| 2.Botswana | 27 |
35.80 |
150,000 |
10,000 |
--- |
303 |
| 3.Lesotho | 29 |
23.57 |
130,000 |
8,200 |
--- |
272i |
| 4.Malawi | 32 |
15.96 |
420,000 |
40,000 |
--- |
220 |
| 5.Mauritius | 6 |
0.08j |
--- |
--- |
6 |
12 |
| 6.Mozambique | 58 |
13.22 |
630,000 |
52,000 |
--- |
104 |
| 7.Namibia | 31 |
19.54 |
85,000 |
6,600 |
26,217 |
480 |
| 8.South Africa | --- |
19.94 |
2,300,000 |
95,000 |
75f |
326 |
| 9.Swaziland | 14 |
25.25 |
67,000 |
3,800 |
--- |
433g |
| 10.Zambia | 45 |
19.95 |
450,000 |
40,000 |
37,458 f |
482 g |
| 11.Zimbabwe | 37 |
25.06 |
800,000 |
56,000 |
--- |
416 |
Source: UNDP Human Development
b Data refer to the end of 1999. Aggregates are rounded estimates; regional totals may not sum to the world total.
c. Data refer to malaria cases reported to the world health organization and may represent only a fraction of the number in a country because of incomplete reporting systems or incomplete health service coverage, or both. Because of the diversity of case detection and reporting systems, country comparisons should be made with caution. Data refer to the end of 1997.
d Data refer to tuberculosis cases notified to the World Health Organization and may represent only a fraction of the true number in a country because of incomplete coverage by health services , inaccurate diagnosis or deficit recording and reporting.
f Data refer to a year or period other than that specified , differ from standard definition or refer to only part of a country.
g. Data refer to 1996.
i Data refer to 1997.
j Data refer to estimates produced using thee 1994 prevalence rate published by the World Health Organization's Global Programme on AIDS (WHO1995).
Table 6: Status of ratification of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change1 and the Kyoto Protocol2.
Country |
FCCC Date of ratification/accession |
Kyoto Protocol |
|
Date of signature |
Ratification or accession |
||
| 1. Algeria | 09/06/93 |
||
| 2. Angola | 17/05/00 |
||
| 3. Benin | 30/06/94 |
||
| 4.Botswana | 27/01/94 |
||
| 5.Burkina Faso | 02/09/93 |
||
| 6.Burundi | 06/01/97 |
||
| 7.Cameroon | 19/10/94 |
||
| 8.Cape Verde | 29/03/95 |
||
| 9.Central African Rep | 10/03/95 |
||
| 10.Chad | 07/06/94 |
||
| 11.Comoros | 31/10/94 |
||
| 12.Congo, Dem. Rep. | 09/01/95 |
||
| 13.Congo, Pop,Rep. | 14/10/96 |
||
| 14.Cote D'Ivoire | 29/11/94 |
||
| 15.Djibouti | 27/08/95 |
||
| 16.Egypt | 05/12/94 |
15/03/99 |
|
| 17.Equatorial Guinea | 16/08/00* |
----- |
16/08/00 |
| 18.Eritrea | 24/04/95* |
||
| 19.Ethiopia | 05/04/94 |
||
| 20.Gabon | 21/01/98 |
||
| 21.Gambia | 10/06/94 |
----- |
01/06/01 |
| 22.Ghana | 06/09/95 |
||
| 23.Guinea | 07/05/93 |
----- |
07/09//00 |
| 24.Guinea Bissau | 27/10/95 |
||
| 25.Kenya | 30/08/94 |
||
| 26.Lesotho | 07/02/95 |
----- |
06/09/00 |
| 27.Liberia | |||
| 28.Libya | 14/06/99 |
||
| 29.Madagascar | 02/06/99 |
||
| 30.Malawi | 21/04/94 |
||
| 31.Mali | 28/12/94 |
27/01/99 |
|
| 32.Mauritania | 20/01/94 |
||
| 33.Mauritius | 04/09/92 |
----- |
09/05/01 |
| 34.Morocco | 28/12/95 |
||
| 35.Mozambique | 25/08/95 |
||
| 36.Namibia | 16/05/95 |
||
| 37.Niger | 25/07/95 |
23/10/98 |
|
| 38.Nigeria | 29/08/94 |
||
| 39.Rwanda | 18/08/98 |
||
| 40.Sao Tome | 29/09/99 |
||
| 41.Senegal | 17/10/94 |
||
| 42.Seychelles | 22/09/92 |
20/03/98 |
|
| 43.Sierra Leone | 22/06/95 |
||
| 44.Somalia | |||
| 45.South Africa | 29/08/97 |
||
| 46.Sudan | 19/11/93 |
||
| 47.Swaziland | 07/10/96 |
||
| 48.Tanzania | 17/04/96 |
||
| 49.Togo | 08/03/95 |
||
| 50.Tunisia | 15/07/93 |
||
| 51.Uganda | 08/09/93 |
||
| 52.Zambia | 28/05/93 |
05/08/98 |
|
| 53.Zimbabwe | 03/11/92 |
||
Source: www.unfccc.int/ resource/conv/ratlist.pdf
(*) ACCESSION
Table7: Status of ratification of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety.
(AS AT 23 JULY 2001)
| Country | Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD) Date of ratification/accession |
Biosafety Protocol |
| Date of signature | ||
| 1. Algeria | 14/08/95 |
25/05/00 |
| 2. Angola | 01/04/98 |
|
| 3. Benin | 30/06/94 |
24/05/00 |
| 4.Botswana | 12/10/95 |
01/06/01 |
| 5.Burkina Faso | 02/09/93 |
24/05/00 |
| 6.Burundi | 15/04/97 |
|
| 7.Cameroon | 19/10/94 |
09/02/01 |
| 8.Cape Verde | 29/03/95 |
|
| 9.Central African Rep | 15/03/95 |
24/05/00 |
| 10.Chad | 07/06/94 |
24/05/00 |
| 11.Comoros | 29/09/94 |
|
| 12.Congo, Dem. Rep. | 03/12/94 |
|
| 13.Congo, Pop ,Rep. | 01/08/96 |
21/11/00 |
| 14.Cote D'Ivoire | 29/11/94 |
|
| 15.Djibouti | 01/09/94 |
|
| 16.Egypt | 02/06/994 |
20/12/00 |
| 17.Equatorial Guinea | 06/12/94* |
|
| 18.Eritrea | 21/03/96* |
|
| 19.Ethiopia | 05/04/94 |
24/05/00 |
| 20.Gabon | 14/03/97 |
|
| 21.Gambia | 10/06/94 |
24/05/00 |
| 22.Ghana | 29/08/94 |
|
| 23.Guinea | 07/05/93 |
24/05/00 |
| 24.Guinea Bissau | 27/10/95 |
|
| 25.Kenya | 26/07/94 |
15/05/00 |
| 26.Lesotho | 10/01/95 |
|
| 27.Liberia | 08/11/00 |
|
| 28.Libya | ||
| 29.Madagascar | 04/03/96 |
14/09/00 |
| 30.Malawi | 02/02/94 |
24/05/00 |
| 31.Mali | 29/03/95 |
04/04/01 |
| 32.Mauritania | 16/08/96 |
|
| 33.Mauritius | 04/09/92 |
|
| 34.Morocco | 21/08/95 |
25/05/00 |
| Country | Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD) Date of ratification/accession |
Biosafety Protocol |
| Date of signature | ||
| 35.Mozambique | 25/08/95 |
24/05/00 |
| 36.Namibia | 16/05/97 |
24/05/00 |
| 37.Niger | 25/07/95 |
24/05/00 |
| 38.Nigeria | 29/08/94 |
24/05/00 |
| 39.Rwanda | 29/05/96 |
24/05/00 |
| 40.Sao Tome | 29/09/99 |
|
| 41.Senegal | 17/10/94 |
31/10/00 |
| 42.Seychelles | 22/09/92 |
23/01/01 |
| 43.Sierra Leone | 12/12/94* |
|
| 44.Somalia | ||
| 45.South Africa | 02/11/95 |
|
| 46.Sudan | 30/10/95 |
|
| 47.Swaziland | 09/11/94 |
|
| 48.Tanzania | 08/03/96 |
|
| 49.Togo | 04/10/95* |
24/05/00 |
| 50.Tunisia | 15/07/93 |
19/04/01 |
| 51.Uganda | 08/09/93 |
24/05/00 |
| 52.Zambia | 28/05/93 |
|
| 53.Zimbabwe | 11/11/94 |
04/06/01 |
Source: www.biodiv.org/world/parties.asp?lg=
(*) ACCESSION
Table 8: Status of ratification of the
United Nations
Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
(AS AT 11 OCTOBER 2000)
Country |
Date of signature |
Date ratification |
| 1. Algeria | 14/10/94 |
22/05/96 |
| 2. Angola | 14/10/94 |
30/06/97 |
| 3. Benin | 14/10/94 |
29/08/96 |
| 4.Botswana | 12/10/95 |
11/09/96 |
| 5.Burkina Faso | 14/10/94 |
26/01/96 |
| 6.Burundi | 14/10/94 |
06/01/97 |
| 7.Cameroon | 14/10/94 |
29/05/97 |
| 8.Cape Verde | 14/10/94 |
08/05/95 |
| 9.Central African Rep | 14/10/94 |
05/09/96 |
| 10.Chad | 14/10/95 |
27/09/96 |
| 11.Comoros | 14/10/95 |
03/03/98 |
| 12.Congo, Dem. Rep. | 14/10/94 |
12/09/97 |
| 13.Congo, Pop ,Rep. | 15/10/94 |
12/07/99 |
| 14.Cote D'Ivoire | 16/10/94 |
04/03/97 |
| 15.Djibouti | 15/10/94 |
12/06/97 |
| 16.Egypt | 14/10/94 |
07/07/95 |
| 17.Equatorial Guinea | 14/10/94 |
27/06/97 |
| 18.Eritrea | 14/10/94 |
14/08/96 |
| 19.Ethiopia | 15/10/94 |
27/06/97 |
| 20.Gabon | 06/09/96* |
|
| 21.Gambia | 14/10/94 |
11/06/96 |
| 22.Ghana | 15/10/94 |
27/12/96 |
| 23.Guinea | 14/10/94 |
23/06/97 |
| 24.Guinea Bissau | 15/10/94 |
27/10/95 |
| 25.Kenya | 14/10/94 |
24/06/97 |
| 26.Lesotho | 15/10/94 |
12/09/95 |
| 27.Liberia | 02/03/98* |
|
| 28.Libya | 15/10/94 |
22/07/96 |
| 29.Madagascar | 14/10/94 |
25/06/97 |
| 30.Malawi | 17/01/95 |
13/06/96 |
| 31.Mali | 15/10/95 |
31/10/95 |
| 32.Mauritania | 14/10/94 |
07/08/96 |
| 33.Mauritius | 17/03/95 |
23/01/96 |
| 34.Morocco | 15/10/94 |
07/11/96 |
| 35.Mozambique | 28/09/95 |
13/03/97 |
| 36.Namibia | 24/10/94 |
16/05/97 |
| 37.Niger | 14/10/94 |
19/01/96 |
| 38.Nigeria | 31/10/94 |
08/07/97 |
| 39.Rwanda | 22/06/95 |
22/10/98 |
| 40.Sao Tome | 04/10/95 |
08/07/98 |
| 41.Senegal | 14/10/94 |
26/07/95 |
| 42.Seychelles | 14/10/94 |
26/06/97 |
| 43.Sierra Leone | 11/11/94 |
25/09/97 |
| 44.Somalia | ||
| 45.South Africa | 09/01/95 |
30/09/97 |
| 46.Sudan | 15/10/94 |
09/11/95 |
| 47.Swaziland | 26/07/94 |
07/10/96 |
| 48.Tanzania | 14/10/94 |
19/06/97 |
| 49.Togo | 15/10/94 |
04/10/95** |
| 50.Tunisia | 14/10/94 |
11/10/95 |
| 51.Uganda | 21/11/94 |
25/06/97 |
| 52.Zambia | 15/10/94 |
19/09/96 |
| 53.Zimbabwe | 15/10/94 |
23/09/97 |
Source: http://www.unccd.int/covention/ratif/doeif.ph
(*) ACCESSION
(**) ACCEPTANCE
Table 9: Priority issues proposed by the African sub-regional meetings for the WSSD1.
| AMU | IGAD/COMESA | ECCAS | ECOWAS/CILSS | SADC |
| 1. Water 2. Desertification and drought mitigation 3. Poverty 4. Coastal and marine ecosystems 5. Liquid and solid wastes 6. Mobilization of financial resources 7. Technology transfer 8. Natural disaster management |
1. Poverty 2. Natural resource management 3. Financing sustainable development 4. Capacity building 5. Regional integration 6. Governance 7. International Environment Governance |
1. Biodiversity 2. Land degradation 3. Coastal and marine ecosystems 4. Conflicts 5. International trade 6. Mobilization of resources 7. Poverty 8. Health |
1. Globalization 2. Poverty 3. Trade and multilateral environmental agreements 4. Infrastructure 5. Governance and human rights 6. Capacity building 7. Financial sustainable development 8. Strengthening of Rio Principles 9. Strategic environmental assessment 10. Institutional strengthening |
1. Poverty 2. Peace ,security and stability 3. Financing sustainable development 4. Health 5. Waste 6. International Environmental Governance(IEG) 7. Food security 8. Energy 9. Climate Change 10. Biodiversity 11. Water 12. Land degradation and desertification 13. Marine and coastal Management 14. Market access 15. Capacity building and technology transfer |
1 The Expanded Joint Secretariat comprises the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), and the African Development Bank (ADB), the Arab Maghreb Union (AMU), the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS), the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the Intergovernmental Authority on Development/Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (IGAD/COMESA) and the Southern African Development Community (SADC)